Al-Biruni: Abu Raihan Mohammad Ibn Ahmad al-Biruni was one of the well-known figures associated with the court of King Mahmud Ghaznawi, who was one of the famous Muslim kings of the 11th century A.D. Al-Biruni was a versatile scholar and scientist who had equal facility in physics, metaphysics, mathematics, geography and history. Born in the city of Kheva near Ural in 973 A.D.in the territory of khwarizm(now Uzbekistan). then under control of Samanids ruling dynasty (874- 999) of Transoxaiana and Persia. he was a contemporary of the well-known physician Ibn Sina. Starting around750 A.D. science flourished under the caliphs of Baghdad, and over the next 600 year sits influence gradually spread as far west as Spain and eastwards into Central Asia. The early scholars translated existing Greek, Indian and Persian texts into Arabic, and in the process accumulated the largest body of scientific knowledge anywhere in the world. One of the most learned Central Asian scientists And scholars was Abu Raihan Muhammad al-Biruni (973 – 1048), an outstanding astronomer, astrologer, mathematician, physicist, physician, geographer, geologist, historian, and indefatigable traveler. Conversanti0n Turkish, Persian, Sanskrit, Hebrew and Arabic, he became the most important interpreter of Indian science to Islam. His many scientific achievements include: pioneering the notion that the speed of light is much greater than the speed of sound, disputing the European Ptolemaic view that Africa stretched infinitely to the South, insisting it was surrounded by water, advancing the controversial but correct view that the Indus valley was once a sea basin, and explaining natural springs by the laws of hydrostatics. He studied with their owned astronomer and mathematician Abu Nasr Mansur, a prince of the ruling Banu Iraq. Al-Biruni’ s knowledge of several languages allowed him to understand existing ideas and bring a fresh and original approach to his own work. At 17 he computed the latitude of Kath by observing the maximum altitude of the sun. Before the year995, he had written several short works. One that survived is Cartography, a work on map projections. He regularly corresponded with his contemporary, the famous physician Ibn Sina, better known to the West as who reconciled Greek learning with Muslim thought with his translation of Euclid into Arabic. At the end of the 10th century and the beginning of the 11th century there were numerous civil wars in the region where al-Biruni lived. In 995 the rule of the Banu Iraq was overthrown in a coup that forced al-Biruni to flee the region, but to where is not quite clear. Some theorize by analyzing his writings that he then went to the city of Ray, near the present day Tehran, where he had no patron and lived in poverty .It is known he returned to his homelandbyJune4, 1004, which then was ruled successively by brothers Ali ibn Ma’munand Abu’l Abbas Ma’mun, because he described an eclipse of the moonfrom Jurjaniyya, a major city of . Provided generous support for al-Biruni’s scientific work, carried out in collaboration with his teacher Abu Nasr Mansur, but at the cost of not being free to leave. By 1017 Al-Biruni was a Muslim of Iranian origin. Not much is known about his early life and upbringing, but he seems to have had very good opportunities of learning during his childhood, he was a great linguist and a prolific writer. Beside his mother tongue, Khwarizmi- in Iranian dialectic of north with strong Turkish influence, he knew Hebrew, Syriac and Sanskrit. He had no knowledge for the Greek but want to know from other master of syriac and Arabic that they was greek translator. He had deep knowledge of Arabic and Persian and wrote the “kitabu`l hind” in Persian language on that time Persian language was international in the world. The repository of the scientific works of the whole civilized world. And the medium of valuable contribution to different branches of science and literature. The early year of Al-Biruni`s life coincided with a period of rather quick, violent, political changes in central Asia, and some of these had their impact upon his life and work. He first lived under the patronage of khwarizm, the Maimunids, who threw off the yoke of the Samanids around 995. Al-Biruni moved out of khwarizm and lived for some time in Jurjan in the court of Shamsul Ma`ali Qabus bin Washmgir, to whom he dedicate one of the his earliest and most valuable works, “atharu`l Baqiya`an al-Quran al-khaliyah”. When Sultan Mahmood Ghaznawi conquered his homeland(khwarizm), he took al-Biruni along with him in his journeys to India several times and thus he had the opportunity to travel all over India during a period of 20 years. He learnt Hindu philosophy, mathematics, geography and religion from the Pandits to whom he taught Greek and Arabic science and philosophy. He wrote a number of books and treatises. Apart from Kitab-al- Hind (History and Geography of India), al-Qanun al-Masudi (Astro- nomy, Trigonometry), al-Athar al-Baqia (Ancient History and Geography), Kitab al-Saidana (Materia Medica) and Kitab al-Jawahir (Precious Stones) as mentioned above, his book al-Tafhim-li-Awail Sinaat al-Tanjim gives a summary of mathematics and astronomy. He has been considered as one of the very greatest scientists of Islam, and, all considered, one of the greatest of all times. His critical spirit, love of truth, and scientific approach were combined with a sense of toleration. His enthusiasm for knowledge may be judged from his claim that the phrase Allah is Omniscient does not justify ignorance. Although Bīrūnī did not write texts on algebra or geometry and his arithmetical works have not survived, he did introduce new mathematical concepts. For instance, in the Qānūn, in the course of a discussion devoted to the trigonometric functions used in astronomy, whereas his predecessors, including the Greek authors, had defined it as a geometric ratio. he described the variation in the motion of the sun with respect to the earthly observer in mathematical language that modern historians of science have construed as among the earliest references to mathematical func¬tional relationships (cf. Hartner and Schramm). In determining the mobility of the solar apogee, Bīrūnī followed his Muslim predecessors in departing from the traditional Greek astronomy of Ptolemy, but by means of more refined observational techniques he was able to go farther and to discover that the apogee has a motion of its own, distinct from the motion of precession. He died in 1048 A.D. at the age of 75, after having spent 40 years in thus gathering knowledge and making his own original contributions to it. On the Hindus in General, as in introduction to our account of them: The barrier between muslim and Hindus has separate way and different case, the knowledge of this difficulties will either facilitate the progress or our work, or serve as in apology for any short coming of ours that the Hindus entirely differ from us in every respect, we first mention the language, although the different of language is also exist between the nations. If you want to conquer these difficulties you will not find it. Also the language is an enormous rang, both in word and inflection, language is divided into a neglected vernacular one, only in use among the common people and a classic one only is use among the upper and educated classes, which is much cultivated and subject to the rule of grammatical inflection and etymology. Indian scribe are careless and do not take pains to produce correct and will collated copies and the highest result that was developed lost by negligence, the scholar of Hindu and muslim nor one familiar to know the word from mouth of each one. The scientific of hindu book are composed in various favorite, some word has sometime one meaning and sometime has other meaning by understanding of this problem should know several language specially Sanskrit. They also nothing believe vice versa on the whole about theological topic and fighting with together with word and contrary against foreigner that they was called mleccha for them. Sometime forbidden and get intermarriage or any other kind of relationship or by sitting, eating and drinking with them, which touches the fire and the water of foreigner. In the third place Hindu usage role against foreigner was frighten of their children with their custom and clothes. And the repugnance of Hindus against muslim began to make their inroads of Mohammad Ibn Elkasim Ibn Elmunabbih that was coming to Sindh from sakastene and conquered the cities of Bahmanwa and Mulasthana which called Al-mansura the later al-mamura. On the belief of the Hindus in God: The belief for the faith is different among the people some of them has educated and some of them don’t have knowledge about god and law and nation. Someone who know the nature and conceived abstract idea for define the general principle Hindus believe with regard to the god that he is eternal without beginning and end acting by free will, almighty, all wise, living, giving life, ruling, preserving: One who in his sovereignty is unique, and does not resemble who would likeness and unlikeness Is nothing. This is the procedure followed by Al-Biruni that he first evaluates the idea of Indian philosopher and scientist on a particular topic. Then he write about the treaties and religion book of Indian scientific and draw similar ideas of Greek thinkers and the Sufis and quotes the relevant sources. Hindus people informing them that the action is the source of god that making action in the universe and humans are the agent of god that they drive action by the god sanction. The educated people and scholars was thinking that call him isvara self sufficing and consider the unity of god as absolute, but that everything in nature is plurality create by the God. Some Hindu scholar calls God a point meaning to say thereby that the qualities of bodies do not apply to him. On the Hindu belief as to created things both “intelligibilia” and “sesibilia” On this subject the ancient Greeks held nearly the same view and the Hindus at all event in those times before philosophy rose high among them under the care of the seven so-called the pillars of wisdom. Other things the only first cause in everything else sufficing and absolutely requires it; that a thing which for its existence stands in need of something else has only a dream-life, on real life, and that reality is only that one and first being the first cause. The theory of Sufis in Greek mean wisdom ( Sofia) in Islam persons adopted something like the doctrine of this philosopher and also adopted this name, but some people did not understand the meaning of the word and erroneously combined it with the Arabic word suffa as if the Sufi, in later times the word was corrupted by misspelling from suf the wool of goat. Abu-Alfath Albusti made a laudable effort to avoid this mistake. There are certain expressions which are offensive according to the notion of one religion and language whilst rejected by another to this class belongs the word “apotheosis” which had a bad sound in the ear of Muslim. If we consider the use of the word “God” in the Arabic language, we will find that all the names by which the pure truth, Allah has been named, may somehow or other be applied to god and which has been named the greatest name. If we consider the use of the word in Hebrew and syriac, in which the two language the sacred books before the Koran were revealed . we find that in the thora and the following book of prophet which are reckoned with the Thora as one whole. On the Veda, the puranas, and other kinds of their national literature: Veda means knowledge of that which was before unknown. It is a religious system which, according to the Hindus, comes from God, and was promulgated by the mouth of Brahman. The Brahman recites the veda without understanding its meaning and the same way they learn it by heart, the one receiving it from the other. Only few of them learn its explanation, and still less is the number of those who master the contents of the veda and their interpretation to such a degree as to be able to hold a theological disputation. All Brahman have obligated to teach the Vedas to the others especially for the Kshatriyas. The later learn it, but not allowed to teach ti, much less to pronounce and recite it. If such a thing can be proved against one of them the Brahmans drag him before the magistrate and he is punished by having his tongue cut off. The songs of Veda include commandment and prohibition, detailed statement about reward and punishment intended to encourage and to deter; but most of it contains hymns of praise and treat of the various kind of sacrifices to the fire, which are so numerous and difficult that you could hardly count them. All Veda songs are recite and not allow to write maybe in writing something will added to it. Sometime in writing may occasionally an addition or defect in the written text. In consequence it has happened that they have several times forgotten and lost it. Hindu people maintain the Veda together with all the rites of their religion and country, had been obliterated in the last Dvapara yuga a perion of time which we shall speak at the proper place, until it was renewed by Vyasa the son of parasara. As we have already mentioned the book of the Hindu are metrical composition like the Rajaz poems of the Arab most of them are composed in a metre called sloka. The Veda however is not composed in this common metre, sloka, but in another, some Hindus say that no one could compose anything in the same metre. However this scholars maintain that this is possible indeed, but that they refrain from trying it merely from veneration for Veda. According to their tradition Vyasa divided it into four parts: Rigveda, Yajurveda, samaveda and Atharvanaveda. Each of the four parts has a peculiar kind of recitation, the first is Rig-Veda consisting of metrical compositions called ric, which are different lengths. It called Rig-Veda as being the totally the ric. It treats of the sacrifices to the fire, and is recited in three different ways: 1. In a uniform manner of reading, just as every other book is read. 2. In such a way that a pause is made after every single word. 3. In a method which is the most meritorious and for which plenty of reward in heaven is promised. First you read a short passage, each word of which is distinctly pronounced; then you repeat it together with a part of that which has not yet been recited next you recite the added portion alone, and then you repeat it together with the next part of that which has not been recited, etc… The Yajurveda is composed of kandin. The word is derivative noun and means the totality the kandin. The difference between this and the Rig-Veda is that it may be read as a text connected by the rules of Samdhi, which is not allowed in the case of Rig-Veda. The one as well as the other treats of works connected with the fire and the sacrifices. Samaveda treats of the sacrifices, commandment and prohibitions. It is recited in a tone like a chant. And hence its name is derived because saman means the sweetness of recitations. The text of Atharvanaveda is connected by the rule of Samdhi, it does not consist of the same composition as the Rig and Yajur Vedas, but of a third kind called bhara. It is recited according toa melody with a nasal tone. This Veda is less in favor of Hindus than others. It likewise treats of the sacrifices to the fire, and contains injunction regarding the dead and what is to be done with them. The Significance of Sacrifice in Hinduism Most of the Veda treats of the sacrifice to the fire, and the describes each one of them. They are different in extent, so that certain of them can only be performed by the greatest of their kings. According to the Hindus, the fire eats everything. Therefore it becomes defiled, if anything unclean is mixed up with it, as e.g. water. Accordingly they are very punctilious regarding fire and water if they are in the hands of non Hindus, because they defiled by being touched by them. The idea of sacrifice is something that is considered unorthodox in our world today; a notion with a somewhat negative connotation. However, many religions in the Western world involve rituals and sacrifices; however, sacrifice is more common a notion in Hinduism. Sacrifice, or yajna, means to “consecrate, to worship, to convert the profane into the holy”. Describes sacrifice as a “salvation of a limited kind that has been present in the ritual of sacrifice, intended, among other things. Nowadays, though, sacrifice is not performed in hopes to reach heaven; sacrifice can be performed in order to obtain liberation, known as moksa, or some type of heaven. Moksa, which is not “associated with sin and redemption but was conceptualized as the liberation of the soul”, is believed to be the attainment of Brahman or Atman. Atman can be the realized self, the “knowledge of the true Self” which is “thought to provide liberation from the bondage of samsara and karma”. Brahman is sometimes referred to as the “Supreme Being or Absolute Reality” and one’s “individual essential nature (Atman) is thus intimately grounded in Brahman”. Accounts of creation differ in many respects. As per Hindu mythology, Brahma was born from a (kamala) lotus springing from Vishnus navel and created the world through his daughter Saraswati. According to Manu Smriti, the self- existent Lord manifested to dispel the darkness enveloping universe. He created the waters and deposited a seed that became a golden egg from which he was born as Brahma. He divided the egg into two parts to construct the heaven and earth, and created the ten Prajapatis, mind-born sons, who completed the work of creation. By a third account, the Lord separated himself into two parts, the male and the female after dividing the golden egg. From him sprang Viraja and from him Manu. Ramayana states that Brahma sprang from the ether and that sages Marichi, Atri, Angiras, Narada, Sanaka, Sanandana, Sanatkumara, Sanasujata and others are his manasa putras (mentally conceived sons). From Marichi sprang Kashyapa from whom sprang Vishwavata who created Manu, the procreator of all human beings. Thus, Manu is Brahmas great grandson. The scholars and researchers say Al-Biruni wrote about 190 works, out of which less than two dozens have survived. One of his surviving books is ‘Tahqiq ma-li-al-Hind min maqulah maqbulah fi-al-aql au mardulah’ commonly known as ‘Kitab al-Hind’, believed to have been completed in 1031 A.D. Its translation into English by Dr Edward C. Sachau as “ALBERUNI’S INDIA” (completed in /around 1888) is considered the most scholarly, authentic and elaborate. The following article is mainly based on “ALBERUNI’S INDIA”(IN TWO VOLUMES)1962 Edition. Lahore, though some other sources available to the writer of this article have also been consulted. Dr Edward C. Sachau, the translator-editor of English version of the Kitab al-Hind, in one of his notes says that Al-Biruni mentions the city of Multan at various places in his book in such a remarkable manner that he thinks Al-Biruni lived there for some time. So he (Dr Sachau) conjectures that possibly Sultan Mahmud Ghaznavi had sent some Khwarizmian princes, officers and scholars (including Al-Biruni) to Multan as state prisoners, after annexing Khwarizm in 1017 A.D. Al-Biruni may or may not have remained a state prisoner at Multan, but he has frequently mentioned Multan in his book at different places, from which one can get considerable details about the city and region. As it is well-known, Multan is one of the oldest cities in the subcontinent, having a long history of its existence. During the course of centuries, rather millenniums, of its life changes in its name continued to take place. Writing about older names of Multan, Al-Biruni states on the authority of a Hindu scholar, Utpala of Kashmir, “…So Multan was originally called Kasyapura, then Hamsapura, then Bagapura, then Sambhapura and then Mulasthana i.e. the original place, for Mula means root, origin and Tana means place.” It may be noted that word Mul or Mool in local Seraiki language is still used for exactly the same meanings and thaan means place, both in Seraiki and Punjabi. Its present name is an improvised version of Mulasthan. Latter historians also mention the same about the earlier names of Multan. Describing idol-worship prevalent among the Hindus of the subcontinent Al-Biruni specifically mentions the well known and celebrated sun-idol of Multan. He writes, “A famous idol of theirs was that of Multan, dedicated to the sun, and therefore called Aditya. It was of wood and covered with red Cordovan leather; in its two eyes were two red rubies.” Al-Biruni calculates its age, as told by Hindu scholars, to be 216,000 years, though our translator Dr Sachau thinks that Al-Biruni inadvertently missed one digit (rather one cipher or Zero) because according to Hindus’ calculation parameters the age of idol should have come out as 2,164,000 years. Al-Biruni further explains, “When Muhammad Ibn Alkasim … conquered Multan, he inquired how the town had become so very flourishing and so many treasures had there been accumulated, and then he found out that this idol was the cause, for there came pilgrims from all sides to visit it. Therefore he thought it best to have the idol where it was, but he hung a piece of cow’s-flesh on its neck by way of mockery. On the same place a mosque was built”. He further goes on, “When then the Karmatians occupied Multan, Jalam Ibn Shiban, the usurper, broke the idol into pieces and killed its priests. He made his mansion, which was a castle built of brick on an elevated place, the mosque instead of the old mosque, which he ordered to be shut from hatred against anything that had been done under the dynasty of the Caliphs of the house of ‘Umayya. When afterwards the blessed Prince Mahmud swept away their rule from those countries, he made again the old mosque the place of the Friday-worship, and the second one was left to decay. At present it is only a barn-floor, where bunches of Hinna (Lawsonia inermis) are bound together”. It is apparent that Al-Biruni viewed the deserted mosque built by the aforementioned Ismaili ruler of Multan. Al-Biruni also questions the long age of the sun-idol (destroyed by the Qaramti ruler Jalam bin Shaiban), in scientific way, as to how wood have lasted for such a long time, as believed by the Hindus; particularly in a place having rather wet air and soil. (A modern scholar and researcher, Dr Ahmad Nabi Khan thinks that the accounts of earlier travelers, prior to the Arab conquest of Multan, suggest that the original idol of Multan was cast in gold and ornamented with rare gems, which was removed along with treasures by the Arab conquerors and it was, later on, replaced with cheaper material of wood, covered with Cordovan leather. Reference: 1- Ahmad, Qeyamuddin, 1983. India by Al-Biruni. National book trust, India.
Posted on: Sat, 04 Oct 2014 15:32:25 +0000
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