By Edward Cullen. much harder lalKtr than under the influence of a burning sun. Coulomb remarks, that the Frencli soldiers, employed on the fortifications of the Isle of Martinique, became soon exhausted, and were unable to perforin half the work executed by them at home. The most violent and toilsome exertion of human labor is performed in Peru, by the carriers, or cargueros, who traverse the loftiest mountains, and clamber along the sides of the most tremendous precipices, with travellers seated on chairs strapped to their backs. In this maimer, they convey loads of 12, 14, or even 18 stone; and possess such strength and action, as to be able to pursue their painful task eight or nine hours, for several successive days. These men are a vagalwnd race, consisting mostly of mulattoes, with a mixture of whites, who prefer a life of hardship and vicissitude to that of constant though moderate labor. When a man stands, he pulls with the greatest effect; but his power of traction is much enfeebled by the labor of travelling. If v denote the number of miles which a person walks in an hour, the force which he exerts in dragging for%vard a load will be expressed nearly by (12—2vf. Thus, when at rest, he pubs with a force of about 29 lbs. avoirdupois; but if he walks at the rate of two miles an hour, his power of traction is reduced to 14 lbs.; and if he quicken his pace to four miles an hour, he can draw only 3 lbs. There is, consequently, a certain velocity which procures the greatest effect, or when the product of the traction by the velocity becomes a maximum. This takes place when he proceeds at the rate of two miles an hour. The utmost exertion which a man, walking, might continue to make, in drawing up a weight by means of a pulley, would amount, therefore, in a minute, only to 2430; but if he applied his entire strength, without moving from the spot, he could produce an effect of 3075. The labor of a horse in a day is commonly reckoned equal to that of five men; but then he works only eight hours, while a man easily continues his exertions for ten hours. Horses, likewise, display much greater force in carrying than in pulling; and yet an active walker will beat them on a long journey. Their power of traction seldom exceeds 144 pounds, but they are capable of carrying more than six times as much weight. The pack-horses in the West Riding of Yorkshire are accustomed to transport loads of 420 lbs. over a hilly country. But, in many parts of England, the mill-horses will carry the enormous burden of 910 lbs. to a short distance. With regard, however, to the ordinary power of draught, the formula (12—vf, where v denotes the velocity in miles an hour, will perhaps be found sufficiently near the truth. Thus a horse, beginning his pull with the force of 144 lbs., would draw 100 lbs. at a walk of two miles on hour, but only 04 lbs. when advancing at double that rate, and not more than 30 lbs. if he quickened his pace to six miles an hour. His greatest performance would hence be made with the velocity of four miles an hour. The accumulated effort in a minute will then amount to 22,528. The measure generally adopted for computing the power of steam engines is much higher, the labor of a horse being reckoned sufficient to raise, every minute, to the elevation of one foot, the weight of 32,000 lbs. But this estimate is not only greatly exaggerated, but should he viewed as merely an arbitrary and conventional standard. Wheel carriages enable horses, on level roads, to draw, at an average, loads about 15 times greater than the power exerted. The carriers between Glasgow and Edinburgh transport, in a single-horse cart, weighing about 7 cwt., the load of a ton, and travel at the rate of 22 miles a day. At Paris, one horse, in a small cart, conveys along the streets half a cord of wood, weighing two tons; but three horses, yoked in a line, arc able to drag 105 cwt. 5.} lbs., or that of a heavy cart loaded with building stones. The Normandy carriers travel from 14 to 22 miles a day, with two-wheeled carts, weighing each 11 cwt., and loaded with 79 cwt., or nearly 4 tons, of goods, drawn by a team, of four horses. The French draught horses, thus harnessed to light carnages, are more efficient, perhaps, than the finer breeds of England. They perform very nearly as much work as those in the single-horse carts used at Glasgow, and far greater than those heavy animals which drag the lumpish and towering English wagons. The London dray-horses, in the mere act of ascending from the wharfs, display a powerful effort, but they afterwards make little exertion, their force being mostly expended in transporting their own ponderous mass along. Oxen, on account of their steady pull, are in many countries preferred for draught. They were formerly employed universally in the various labors of husbandry. The tenderness of their hoofs, unless shod, however, makes them unfit for pulling on paved roads, and they can work only with advantage in soil grounds. But they want all the pliancy and animation which are the favorite qualities of the horse. The patient drudgery of the ass renders him a serviceable companion of the poor. Much inferior in strength to the horse, he is maintained at far less cost. In this country, an ass will carry about two hundred weight of coals or lime-stone twenty miles a day. But, in the warmer climates, he becomes a larger and finer animal, and trots or ambles briskly under a loud of 150 jiounds. The mule is still more powerful and hardy, being fitted equally for burden and draught. In the hotter parts of Asia and Africa, the ponderous strength of the elephant has been long turned to the purposes of war. He is reckoned more powerful than six horses, but his consumption of food is proportionally great. The elephant carries a load of three or four thousand pounds; his ordinary pace is equal to that of a slow trot; he travels easily over forty or fifty miles in a day, and has been known to perform, in that time, a journey of one hundred and ten miles. I lis sagacity directs him to apply his strength according to the exigency of the occasion. The camel is n most useful beast of burden in the arid plains of Arabia. The stronger ones carry a load of ten or twelve hundred weight, and the weaker ones transport six or seven hundred; they walk at the rate of two miles and a half in an hour, and march about thirty miles every day. The camel travels often eight or nine days, without, any fresh supply of water. When a caravan encamps in the evening, he is, perhaps, turned loose, for the space of an hour, to browzc on the coarsest herbage, which serves him to ruminate during the rest of the night. In this manner, without making any other halt, he will perform a dreary and monotonous journey of two thousand miles.— Within the arctic circle, the rein-deer is a domesticated animal, not less valuable. Ho not only feeds and clothes the poor Laplander, hut transports his master, with great swiftness, in a covered sledge, over the snowy and frozen tracts. The reindeer subsist on the scanty vegetation of moss or lichens, and are docile, but not powerful. Two of them arc required to draw a light sledge : so harnessed, they will run fifty or sixty miles on a stretch, and sometimes perform a journey of a hundred and twelve miles in the course of a day. But such exertions soon wear them out. A sort of dwarf camel was the only animal of burden possessed by the ancient Peruvians. The lama is, in deed, peculiarly fitted for the lofty regions of the Andes. The strongest of them carry only from 150 to 200 pounds, but perform about fifteen miles a day over the roughest mountains. They generally continue this labor during five days, and are then allowed to halt two or three days before they renew their task. The paco is another similar animal, employed likewise in transporting goods in that singular country; it is very stubborn, however, and carries only from fifty to seventy pounds. Even the exertions of goats have, in some parts of Europe, been turned to useful labor. They are made to tread in a wheel which draws water, or ruiseB ore from the mine. Though a very light animal, the goat exerts much force, as he climbs at a high angle. Supposing this soaring creature, though only the fourth part of the weight of a man, to march as fust along an ascent of 40°, as he does over one of 18°,—the sine of the former being double that of the latter,—it must perform half as much work. Forcf.llini, Egidio or Giles, an Italian philologist, celebrated as a lexicographer, was born 1(588, in a village not far from Feltre, in the ancient Venetian territory. The jKiverty of his parents prevented him from going to school, and he was almost grown up when he began to study Latin in the seminary at Padua. His teacher in this language, who soon became his friend, was professor Facciolato. Forcellini made rapid progress in the ancient languages, and assisted Facciolato in his new and greatly augmented edition of Cnlepins dictionary of seven languages. The two friends then resolved to publish a complete Latin dictionary. But the execution of this project was long delayed by Forcellinis being appointed professor of rhetoric and president of the seminary at Ceneda, in the Trevison. But, having been recalled to Padua in 1731, and having obtained, through the patronage of the bishop of that city, cardinal Rezzonico, sufficient leisure to prosecute his task, he finished it under the direction of Facciolato. It was published under the title Mlgitki Forcclhni tetiua Lalinitati3 Lexicon, &c. (Paduu, 1771, 4 vols, folio)—a monument of erudition and accurate knowledge of the Latin tongue. Forcellini died in 1708. (See Facciolato.) Forceps, in surgery, &c.; a pair of scissors for cutting off, or dividing, the fleshy, membranous parts of the body, as occasion requires. Forcible Entry and DETAnraa, in law, is the violently taking and keeping 1. 178 FORCIBLE ENTRY—FORESHORTENING. possession of lands or tenements with amis or menaces, and without authority of law, whereby he who Jias thc.right of entry is kept out of possession. By the ancient common law, he who had the right of entry into lands, might make entry by force; but, this liberty being abused, a statute was passed in the time of Richard II, and subsequently other statutes, subjecting a party who should make forcible entry into lands to indictment, and provision has also been made for a summary process to tie issued by two justices of the peace forthe purpose of restoring the party thus forcibly expelled, or kept out of his lands, to the |>oseession. Similar statutes have been passed in die U. States ; so that the general rule is, that a person cannot get possession of lands, even if he has a right of entry, where another person is in peaceable possession, and ready to resist die owner, except by a judgment of law. In other words, a man must apply to the courts for redress, and not undertake to right himself by violence. Fo Rcing, among gardeners, signifies the making trees produce ripe fruit before their usual time. This is done by planting them in a hot-bed against a south wall, and likewise defending them from the injuries of die weather by a glass frame. They should always be grown trees, as young ones are apt to be destroyed by this management. The glasses must be taken oil at proper seasons, to admit the benefit of fresh air, and especially of gentie showers. Ford, John, an early English dramatic author, was bom in Devonshire, in 1586, and entered die Middle Temple in 1602, for the purpose of studying law. While there, he published, in 1606, a piece entitled Fames MemonaU, a species of monody on the earl of Devonshire, which poem, considered as die production of a youth, exhibits great freedom of thought and command of language. He printed his first tragedy of the Lovers Melancholy, in 1629. This, however, was not his first play, as a piece of his, entitled, A bad Beginning makes a good Ending, was previously acted at court. He wrote, or assisted to write, at least, eleven dramas; and such as were printed appeared from 1629 to 1634. Most of diese were exclusively his own composition ; but some of them were written in conjunction with Decker, Drayton, Hatherewaye and others. The date of his death is uncertain; but it is thought diat he did not long survive 1639. As a dramatic writer, he is often elegant and elevated, ami uniformly easy and har monious. His genius was most inclined to tragedy, and he was too fond of an accumulation of terrific incidents,which overlays the natural pathos, in which he was by no means deficient. Besides the works already mentioned, a writer in the Censura Literaria has attributed to him an able little manual, entitled, A Line of Life pointing to the Immortalitie of a vertuous Name (1620, 12mo.). Fore; the distinguishing character of all that part of a ships frame and machinery which lies near the stem. Fore And Aft ; throughout the ships whole length, or from end to end; it also implies, in a line with the keel.—Fore BowLine; the bow-line of the fore-sail. (See Bow-Line.) Fore Braces; ropes applied to the fore yard-arms, to change the position of the fore-sail occasionally. Forecastle; a short deck placed in the fore part of a ship, above the upper deck; it is usually terminated, both before and behind, in vessels of war, by a breastwork, the foremost part forming the top of die beak head, and the hind part reaching to the after-part of the fore chains.— Forecastle Men; sailors stationed on the forecastle,who are generally prime seamen. Foreclosed, in law, signifies the being shut out, and excluded or barred the equity of redemption on mortgages, &c. Foreland; a cape or promontory projecting into the sea, as die North and South Forelands. Fore Tackle ; tackle on the fore-mast, and also tackle used for stowing die anchor. —Foretop Men; men stationed in die foretop, in readiness to set, or take in die smaller sails, and to keep die upper rigging in order. Forensis (Latin), from forum (q. v.), is often used in modern dines; for instance, medicina forensis is the science of medicine as applied in legal processes, as in the examination of bodies of persons suspected of having suffered violence, of the nature and effects of wounds supposed to have caused death, &c. In Germany, tins is done by a physician appointed by die government. Foreshortening, in drawing and painting; the art of representing figures of all sorts as they appear to the eye, in oblique positions. This art, which, in many instances, is very difficult, was known to the Greeks; and Pliny speaks particularly as to its being successfully practised by Parrhasius and Pausias. Among the moderns, Correggio must be allowed the palm for excellence in foreshortening. In painting ceilings, it is particularly important In a celebrated picture of the body of Christ lying horizontally, the figure is so much foreshortened that the toes appear almost to touch the chin. Forestalling is the buying or bargaining for any corn, cattle, or other merchandise, by the way, before it comes to any market or fair to be sold, or as it comes from beyond the 6eas, or otherwise, towards any port or creek, to sell the same again at a higher price. At the common law, all endeavors to enhance the price of merchandise, and all practices which have a tendency thereto, whether by spreading false rumors, or by purchasing tilings in a market before the accustomed hour, or by buying and selling again the same thing in the same market, or by such devices, are criminal, and punishable by fine and imprisonment. Forests. The great importance of wood to society, and the rapid decrease of forests, if particular care is not taken of them, have led, in modern times, to a careful investigation of the subject of the management of forests, and every thing connected with it. The Germans, who first taught mining as a science, were the first who treated scientifically of the management of forests, and established forest academies, in which all branches of the knowledge relating to them are taught These establishments originated from the increasing scarcity of wood, which rendered the careful management of the forests necessary, and from the plan of raising a revenue on the part of the government by the sale of the wood. Mr. Zanthier first introduced instruction in the forest sciences as a particular branch of study at Ilsenburg, in Stolbcrg-Wcrningerode, near the I lartz mountains. Prussia soon directed her attention to them; and, at present, no person in that country is appointed to on office in the forest department without having undergone a strict examination in the branches of knowledge connected with the forests, and having served personally in the forests for a considerable length of time. There are a number of forest academies in different parts of Germany, particularly in the small states of Central Germany, in the Hartz, Thuringio, &c. The principal branches taught in them are the following ; forest botany, mineralogy, zoology, chemistry; by which the learner is taught the natural history of forests, and the mutual relations, &c, of the different kingdoms of nature. He is also instructed in the care and chase of game, and iu the surveying and cultiva tion of forests so as to understand the mode of raising all kinds of wood, and supplying a new growth as fast as the old is taken away. The pupil is also instructed in the administration of the forest taxes and police, and all that relates to forests considered as a branch of revenue.— France has likewise paid attention to her forests, and has enacted a code forestier.— The English forest laws have reference only to the preservation of game.— With regard (says Blackstone, Com., vol. % page 413) to the rise and original of the present civil prohibitions on the destruction of game in Europe, it will be found that all forest and game laws were introduced into that part of the world at the same time, and by the same policy, as the feudal system, when the swarms of barbarians issued from their northern hive, and laid the foundation of most of the present kingdoms of Europe on the ruins of the Western empire. For when a conquering general came to settle the economy of a vanquished country, and to part it out among his soldiers or feudatories, who were to render him military service for such donations, it behoved him to keep the natives of the country, and all persons who were not his military tenants, in as low a condition as possible, and especially to prohibit them the use of arms. Nothing could do this more effectually than a prohibition of hunting or sporting ; and therefore it was the policy of the conqueror to reserve this right to himself* and those on whom he should bestow it, who were only his capital feudatories or greater barons. And accordingly we find in the feudal constitution one and the same law prohibiting the ruslici in general from beating arms, and also proscribing the use of snares, nets or other engines for destroying the game. This exclusive privilege well suited the martial genius of the conquering troops, who delighted in a sport which, in its pursuit and slaughter, bore some resemblance to war. And, indeed, like some of their modem successors, they had no other amusement to entertain their vacant hours, despising all arts as effeminate, and having no other learning than was couched in such rude ditties as were sung at the solemn carousals which succeeded these ancient huntings. And it is remarkable, that, in those nations where the feudal policy remains most uncorruptcd, the forest or game laws continue in their highest rigor. In France, all game is [wasjproperly the kings; and, in some parts of Germany, it is death for a peasant to be found hunting in the 180 FORESTS—FORGET-ME-NOT. woods of the nobility. In England, also, hunting has always been esteemed a most princely diversion and exercise. The whole island was replenished with all sorts of game in the times of the Britons, who lived in a wild and pastoral maimer, without enclosing or improving their grounds, and derived much of their subsistence from the chase, which they all enjoyed in common. But when husbandry took place under the Saxon government, and lands began to be cultivated, improved and enclosed, the beasts naturally fled into the woody and desert tracts, which were called forests, and, not having been disposed of in the first distribution of lands, were therefore held to belong to the crown. These were filled with great plenty of game, which our royal s|K>rtsmen reserved for their own diversion, on pain of a pecuniary forfeiture on the part of such as interfered with their sovereign. But every freeman had the full liberty of sporting upon his own territories, provided he abstained from the kings forests. However, upon the Norman conquest, a new doctrine took place, and the right of pursuing and taking all beasts of chase or venery, and such other animals as were accounted game, was held to belong to the king, or to such only as were authorized under him. The right thus newly vested in the crown was exerted with the utmost rigor at and after the time of the Norman establishment, not only in the ancient forests, but in the new ones which the Conqueror made by laying together vast tracts of country depopulated for that purpose, and reserved solely for the kings royal diversion ; in which were exercised the most horrid tyrannies and oppressions, under color of forest law, for the sake of preserving the beasts of chase ; to kill any of which, within the limits of the forest, was as penal as the death of a man. And, in JHirsuanee of the same principle, king fohn laid a total interdict upon the teinged as well as the four-footed creation: capturam avium per totem Angiiam intcrdixit. The cruel and insupportable hardships which those forest laws created to the subject, occasioned our ancestors to be as zealous for their reformation, as for the relaxation of the feudal rigors, and the other exactions introduced by the Norman family; and, accordingly, we find the immunities of carta de foresta as warmly contended for, and extorted from the king with as much difficulty, as those of magna carta itself. By this charter, confirmed in parliament, many forests were disaf forested, or stripped of their oppressive privileges; and regulations were made in the regimen of such as remained; particularly, killing the kings deer was made no longer a capital offence, but only punished by a fine, imprisonment, or abjuration of the realm. And by a variety of subsequent statutes, together with the long acquiescence of the crown, without exerting the forest laws, this prerogative is now become no longer a grievance to the subject. Forfeiture, in law; the effect of a transgression or offence, as the loss of privilege, right, estate, honor, office or effects, either in civil or criminal cases. In civil cases, as when a tenant in tail makes lenses not warranted by the statute, a forfeiture is committed, and he who has the immediate reversion may enter upon possession. In criminal cases, it is two-fold; of real and personal estates, as by attainder in high treason; or, in petty treason and felony, of all chattel interests absolutely, and the profits of all freehold estates during life and after death, of all lands and tenements in fee simple (but not those in tail), to the crown for a year and a day, &c. Lands are forfeited upon attainder, and not before; goods and chattels are forfeited by conviction. Forge; a little furnace, as that used by smiths, &c, or, simply, a pair of bellows, the muzzle of which is directed upon a smooth area, on which coals are placed. (See Bellows.)—Forge is also used when speaking of a large furnace, wherein iron ore, taken out of the mine, is melted down; or it is more properly applied to another kind of furnace, wherein the iron ore, melted down, and separated in a former furnace, and then cast into sows and pigs, is heated and fused over again, and beaten afterwards with large hammers, and thus rendered more soft, pure, ductile, and fit for use. Forge Furnace. The forge furnace consists of a hearth, upon which a fire may he made, and urged by the action of a large pair of double bellows, the nozzle of which is inserted through a wall or parapet constructed for that purpose. Black lead pots, or small furnaces of every desired form, may be placed, as occasions re quire, upon the hearth: and, the tube of the bellows being inserted into a hole in the bottom of the furnace, it becomes easy to raise the heat to almost any degree required. Forgf.t-me-.vot (myosotis palvstris) is a small herbaceous plant, common in wet places throughout all Europe and a grea
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