Famous Historical Muslims of African/Black Origin Islamic civilization currently encompasses every culture, ethnicity, race, and language on the planet. The foundations of Islam are quite egalitarian and encourage diversity, a fact which has attracted various peoples to its teachings across the centuries. The pages of Islamic history are filled with the emergence of many different ethno-linguistic groups, from regions as far apart as West Africa and Central Asia, as important political and cultural forces, which greatly impacted the direction of Islamic civilization. Unfortunately, despite this reality, Muslim history has often been presented as a series of accomplishments revolving around Arabs, Persians, and Turks, to the exclusion of all other groups; this is equally the fault of Western Orientalists and Muslim historians. The rich histories of hundreds of Muslim ethnic, racial, and linguistic groups have too often been overlooked or overshadowed by this mistaken approach towards Muslim history and expropriated by the master narrative which seeks to iden ify Muslim history with a very specific cultural and geographic context. The marginalization of the historical legacy of African Muslims needs to be understood within this broader context. Black Muslims, or Muslims of African origin, have played—and continue to play— a particularly important role in Islamic civilization as ascetics, reformers, leaders, revolutionaries, and scholars. In many ways, the egalitarian and diverse spirit of Islam is most clearly manifested in this history, the impact of which extended far beyond Africa and the influence of which has left a significant historical legacy. Yet, many Muslims are ignorant of this rich history. How many Muslim youths are familiar with the story of Usāma ibn Zayd? When we speak of revolution and justice, who today speaks of the Zanj rebellion, an ultimately unsuccessful struggle, colored by messianic tendencies, waged by African Muslims in order to transform an unjust social and political order? Moreover, in theological circles, while we examine the works of Ibn al-Qayyim, al-Ghazālī, and Ibn Arabī—volumes of which have been translated and are readily available—the reformist thought of ‘Abd Allāh ibn Yāsin, Usmān dan Fodio and Nānā Asmā’u remains a mystery to most Muslims, many of whom have scarcely heard the names of these great scholars from West Africa. It is important for many Muslims to reclaim this history, which has too often been forgotten or marginalized. This process of reclamation begins with the recognition of those individuals who shaped this history and who contributed to Islamic civilization. Among the most important of these men and women are: Bilāl ibn Rabāḥ (d. 640). Bilāl was an emancipated Ethiopian slave who became one of the closest and most trusted companions of the Prophet Muhammad and the first muezzin (caller to prayer) in Islam. During the time of the Prophet, he was appointed to the important position of the custodian of the treasury (bayt al-māl). He participated in most of the Prophet’s expeditions and battles and proved his dedication to the Islamic cause on numerous occasions. Following the death of the Prophet, he was among the most important partisans of ‘Alī b. Abī Tālib and supported his claims to to the caliphate. He died in Syria around 640 and is buried in Damascus. Umm Ayman (d. 650). Umm Ayman, also known as Barakah, was an emancipated Ethiopian slave and a renowned companion of the Prophet Muhammad and was one of the few individuals who closely knew the Prophet from his birth until his death. She was married to Zayd b. al-Ḥāritha, the adopted son of the Prophet, and was among the closest and most trusted confidants of the Prophet Muhammad. She was among the earliest converts to Islam and participated in the battle of Uhud, caring and tending for the wounded. She died in 644 and is buried in the Jannat al-Baqī’ cemetery in Medina. ‘Ubāda b. al-Ṣāmit b. Qays al-Khazrajī al-Anṣārī (d. 654). An early Companion of the Prophet Muhammad, ‘Ubāda was one of the earliest converts to Islam in Medina and participated in all the major battles of the Prophet, including Badr and Uhud. During the time of the Prophet, he was among the most respected Companions and was appointed to a position of authority more than once by the Prophet. ‘Umar b. al-Khaṭṭāb (d. 644), the second caliph, had immense respect for ‘Ubāda and described him as a “man whose value exceeds that of 1000 men.” During the early caliphate, he was appointed by Abū Bakr (r. 632–634) and ‘Umar (r. 634–644) as an emissary to the Cyrus of Alexandria (d. 641), the Byzantine prefect of Egypt, and he played an important role as a general in the Arab conquest of Egypt in 642. A pious individual, he was highly critical of the wealth and ostentation of certain individuals—especially the governor of Syria, Mu‘awiya b. Abī Sufyān (d. 680)—whose Islamic credentials he felt were lacking. He died in 654 and was buried in Jerusalem, where his tomb became an important site for local visitation. Usāma b. Zayd (d. 674). The son of Zayd ibn al-Hāritha and Umm Ayman, Usāma b. Zayd was among the closest companions of the Prophet Muhammad, and was the youngest individual ever appointed as a military general during the lifetime of the Prophet, leading a military force—which included some of the highest-ranking companions—when he was only seventeen years old. Following the Prophet’s death, he played an important role as a general, especially in the military campaigns against Byzantium, and is best known for his neutral stance during the civil wars that took place during the caliphate of ‘Alī b. Abī Tālib (r. 656-661). He died around 674 and is buried in Medina. For more on these early Islamic figures and Companions of the Prophet, see: Asma Afsarrudin, The First Muslims: History and Memory (2007) Muhammad Yusuf Kandhalawi, Hayatus-Sahaba: The Lives of the Sahaba (2007) Ella Landau-Tasserson (trans.), The History of al-Tabari, Vol. 39: Biographies of the Prophet’s Companions and Their Successors: al-Tabari’s Supplement to his History (1998) Martin Lings, Muhammad: His Life Based on the Earliest Sources (2001) mo_uhud Muhammad b. ‘Alī al-Jawād al-Husaynī (d. 835). Considered the ninth Imām by the Twelver Shi’i tradition, Muhammad al-Jawād was from the lineage of the Prophet and one of the most important Alid figures during his time. His mother, al-Khayzaran (also known as Sabika), was of Nubian or East African origin and was an important figure in her own right, with many Muslims considering her among the most virtuous and knowledgeable women of her era. Muhammad al-Jawād undertook the responsibility of the Imamate while only 8 years old and died at the young age of 25. Although he lived in turbulent times and despite his youth, he played an important role—religiously and intellectually—as the leader of the Shi‘i community. In addition to being revered as the Imām of the Age by Twelver Shi’is, he is also highly respected and revered by Sunnis as a religious scholar and one of the most prominent leaders of the Ahl al-Bayt in his time. He died in 835—probably poisoned on the orders of the Abbasid caliph—and was buried in Ba hdad next to his grandfather Mūsa al-Kāẓim (d. 799). Among the many pieces of wisdom that have been ascribed to him is the following: “Modesty is the ornament of poverty, thanksgiving is the ornament of affluence and wealth. Patience and endurance are the ornaments of calamities and distress. Humility is the ornament of lineage, and eloquence is the ornament of speech. Committing to memory is the ornament of tradition (hadīth), and bowing the shoulders is the ornament of knowledge. Decency and good morale is the ornament of the mind, and a smiling face is the ornament of munificence and generosity. Not boasting of doing favors is the ornament of good deeds, and humility is the ornament of service. Spending less is the ornament of contentment, and abandoning the meaningless and unnecessary things is the ornament of abstention and fear of God.” (narrated by Qāḍī Nūrullāh al-Shushtarī in his Iḥqaq al-Ḥaqq) For further reading: Shaykh al-Mufid, Kitab al-Irshad: The Book of Guidance into the Lives of the Twelve Imams (2007) Baqir Sharif al-Qarashi, The Life of Imam Muhammad al-Jawad (2001), which can be read here: maaref-foundation/english/library/pro_ahl/imam09_jawad/the_life_of_imam_jawad/index.htm Dhūl Nūn Abū al-Fayḍ Thawbān b. Ibrāhīm al-Miṣrī (d. 859). One of the most prominent early mystics in the Islamic world, Dhūl Nūn originated from Nubia and was the teacher of another prominent early Sufi, Sahl al-Tustarī (d. 896). His teachings emphasized the central role of gnosis or ma‘rifa in attaining higher spiritual truths. He has also been associated with Hermetic philosophy and alchemy, which resulted in his being tried for heresy by the Abbasids in Baghdad in the 840s. According to the tenth-century historian al-Mas‘ūdī (d. 956), Dhūl Nūn was “an ascetic and a philosopher who pursued a course of his own in religion. He was one of those who elucidate the history of these temple-ruins (barabi). He roamed among them [the temples] and examined a great quantity of figures and inscriptions.” This interesting statement is most likely a reference to Dhūl Nūn’s interest in the hieroglyphs and inscriptions on the many temples he encountered in Egypt, which he believed possessed an inner spiritual meaning and erhaps a trace of the Hermetic sciences of the past. For more, see: Farid al-Din Attar and A.J. Arberry (trans.), Muslim Saints and Mystics: Episodes from the Tadhkirat al-Auliya’ (1990) Annemarie Schimmel, Mystical Dimensions of Islam (1975) “al-Jāḥiẓ” Abū ʿUthman ʿAmr b. Baḥr (d. 869). Originally from Basra, al-Jāḥiẓ is renowned as one of the most important litterateurs in Islamic history. In addition, he was an accomplished Mu‘tazalite theologian, poet, philosopher, grammarian and linguist. He authored about 200 books on various subjects ranging from religio-political polemics to treatises on rhetoric and zoology. Among his most famous works is his Risālat Mufākharat al-Sūdan ‘ala al-Biḍān, an impassioned defense of the superior qualities and accomplishments of the peoples of sub-Saharan and East Africa. For more, see: Charles Pellat, The Life and Works of al-Jahiz: Translations of Selected Texts (1969) Abū al-Misk Kafūr (d. 968). Originally an East African slave, Kafūr rose to become a military commander and eventually sultan of the Ikhshidid dynasty, which included territory encompassing modern-day Egypt, Sudan, Libya, Eritrea, Palestine, Syria, Lebanon, Turkey, Cyprus, Iraq, Jordan, and the Hejaz. An effective ruler, he was able to defend his realms from incursions from the Fatimids, Hamdanids and Qaramita. He was also a major patron of the arts and scholarship, with the famous Arab poet al-Mutannabi (d. 965) being among the many poets whom he patronized. For more, see: Marshall Hodgson, The Venture of Islam, Vol 1 (1974) Hugh Kennedy, The Prophet and the Age of the Caliphates (2004) Ikhshidid_Dynasty_935_-_969_(AD) Ibn-Tulun Abd Allāh b. Yāsīn (d.1059). Jurist, theologian, reformist, and one of the founders of the al-Murābitun (Almoravid) movement and dynasty, which ruled North Africa and Iberia between 1080 and 1147. He was an important disciple of the Maliki scholar Waggag b. Zallu al-Lamti (d. 1054) and played a central role in the Islamization of the Berber tribes of West Africa. It was ‘Abd Allāh b. Yāsīn who played a critical role in transforming the Almoravid movement from a religious organization into an important political and military force. For more, see: Ronald A. Messier, The Almoravids and the Meaning of Jihad (2010) H.T. Norris, H.T. “New evidence on the life of ‘Abdullah B. Yasin and the origins of the Almoravid movement.,” The Journal of African History, Vol. 12, No. 2 (1971), pp. 255–268. Guillaume_Delisle_Morocco_1707 Al-Mustanṣir bi-llāh (d. 1094). Fatimid Isma’ili Imam-Caliph. He was born to a Sudanese mother and his caliphate lasted for about 60 years, the longest of any caliph in the Islamic world. His reign witnessed intellectual efflorescence, the consolidation of Ismai’li thought and doctrine, and the expansion of the Fatimid da’wa into regions such as Yemen and India. It was during his period as caliph that the Fatimids repelled the attempted Seljuk invasion of Egypt and briefly held sway over Baghdad in 1058. For more, see: Paul Walker, Exploring an Islamic Empire: Fatimid History and its Sources (2002) iis.ac.uk/SiteAssets/pdf/Fatimids%20-%20Daftary%20-%20EI%20v%20IX%20p%20423.pdf Fatimids Calif_al_Mustansir_Misr_1055 Mansa Mūsa (d.1337). Emperor of the Malian Empire in West Africa famously known for his wealth, patronage of Islamic scholars, and magnificent architectural projects. His reign is remembered as one of the most prosperous of any monarch in the history of Muslim West Africa. His fame was so extensive and his wealth was so renowned that his name was well-known in Western Christendom and he was featured quite prominently in the Catalan Atlas of 1375 (image below). For more, see: Nawal Morcos Bell, “The age of Mansa Musa of Mali: Problems in succession and chronology”, International Journal of African Historical Studies 5 (1972): 221–234. Nehemia Levtzion and John F.P. Hopkins, eds. Corpus of Early Arabic Sources for West Africa (2002) Nehemia Levtzion, “The thirteenth- and fourteenth-century kings of Mali”, Journal of African History (1963): 341–353 P. James Oliver, Mansa Musa and the Empire of Mali (2013) Sonni Alī (d.1492). Military strategist, conqueror, and founder of the Songhai Empire in West Africa. In comparison with his successors, he promoted a syncretic religious policy in his kingdom, which led to strong opposition from the religious establishment. For more, see: Patricia McKissack and Frederick McKissack, The Royal Kingdoms of Ghana, Mali and Songhay: Life in Medieval Africa (1995) Askia Mohammad I (d. 1538). The greatest emperor of the Songhai dynasty who expanded and consolidated the empire. He introduced important political reforms and extended the boundaries of the Songhai. He was also an important patron of Islamic scholarship and made Islamic law one of the cornerstones of his religious policy and aligned himself very closely with the religious scholars of Timbuktu. His reign witnessed the massive expansion of trade networks across the region. For more, see: John O. Hunwick, Timbuktu and the Songhay Empire: Al-Sadi’s Tarikh al-Sudan down to 1613 and other contemporary documents (1999) John. O Hunwick, Sharia in Songhay: The Replies of al-Maghili (1985) askia Mustafa Zemmouri/Estevanico (d.1539). Also known as Esteban de Dorantes. Enslaved by the Portuguese and later the Spanish in his native Morocco, Estevanico was among the earliest travelers in the Americas, taking part in exploration expeditions in regions corresponding to modern-day Cuba, Mexico, Florida, New Mexico, Arizona, and Texas. As such, he is considered to be the first African-born individual to have set foot in continental North America. For more, see: Carolyn Arrington, Black Explorer in Spanish Texas: Estevanico (1986) Robert Goodwin, Crossing the Continent, 1527-1540 (2008) Rayford Logan, “Estevanico, Negro Discoverer of the Southwest: A Critical Reexamination”, Phylon 1 (1940): 305-314. Elizabeth Shepherd, The Discoveries of Esteban the Black (1970) Idrīs Alouma (d. 1603). Administrator, military leader, and ruler of the Bornu-Kamen Empire in Central Africa. He is remembered for his Islamic piety, legal reforms, and prosperous rule. He introduced many legal and administrative reforms, grounded in Islamic law, implemented an Islamic court system and patronized major construction projects of mosques and madrasas throughout his kingdom. Alouma, a pious Muslim, played an important role as a patron of Islamic scholarship and the ulema’ with whom he was closely allied and, following the fall of the Songhai empire, became the most powerful Muslim monarch between the Niger and the Nile. He is also credited with an expansion of trade routes and networks that increased the economic prosperity of the empire. Alouma’s reign also witnessed the establishment of important diplomatic contacts with the Ottoman Empire, who sent an embassy to his court. The latter sent him military advisers that helped introduce important reforms of his army by introducing gunpowder tech ology, which contributed to his success on the battlefield against his enemies. Like Mansa Musa, Alouma is known for having performed the pilgrimage to Mecca. His military competence, administrative reforms, encouragement of learning and diplomatic maneuvers allowed Idrīs Alouma to transform Bornu from one kingdom among many in Central Africa into perhaps one of the most important sub-Saharan Islamic states. For more, see: John O. Hunwick. “Songhay, Bornu and Hausaland in the sixteenth century”, in J. Ajayi and M. Crowder (eds.), The History of West Africa (1971): 202-239 Dierk Lange, A Sudanic Chronicle: the Borno Expeditions of Idrīs Alauma (1987) B.G. Martin, “Mai Idris of Bornu and the Ottoman Turks, 1576-1578,” International Journal of Middle East Studies 3 (1972): 470-490 Shehu Usmān dan Fodīo (d.1817). Also known as ‘Uthman b. Fudi, he was a religious scholar, jurist, ascetic, reformer, revolutionary, and founder of the Sokoto Caliphate in northern Nigeria. An ethnic Fulani residing in Hausaland, Dan Fodio was a jurist of the Maliki school and an adherent of the Qadariyya Sufi order. He placed heavy emphasis on political and religious reform, believing the Muslim states of West Africa to have deviated from the principles of justice and righteousness that were enshrined in Islamic law. He was particularly opposed to the oppressive social and fiscal practices that had come to dominate Hausaland and found strong support for his reforms among the peasantry in particular. He spearheaded a major campaign of religious revivalism and reform in order to rectify this state of affairs and led a major Fulani armed uprising against the rulers of Hausaland. His efforts culminated in the establishment of the Sokoto Caliphate, a theocratic state based strictly on Islamic law. He then waged war against neighboring states, bringing them under his authority and implementing his reforms in the conquered regions. Shortly after his establishment of the caliphate, Dan Fodio, while continuing to hold the title of Commander of the Believers (amir al-mu’mineen) delegated his authority to his son (Muhammad Bello) and retired from public life, spending most of his time engaged in preaching, teaching and writing. He was a prolific writer, authoring numerous books and treatises on politics, philosophy, theology, mysticism, and law in both the Arabic and Fulani languages. He was a strong advocate of education and literacy, for both men and women, and several of his children (including his daughter, mentioned below) were important scholars in their own right. Shehu Usman dan Fodio was perhaps the most important Muslim reformist leader in West Africa during the nineteenth century. This was due both to his scholarship and his role as a political leader, which reinvigorated West African Islam with a renewed sense of purpose. Most importantly was Dan Fodio’s founding of the Sokoto caliphate which brought the Hausa states and some neighbouring territories under a single central administration for the first time in history. For more, see: Mervyn Hiskett, The Sword of Truth: The Life and Times of the Shehu Usuman Dan Fodio (1972) S. J. Hogben and A. H. M. Kirk-Greene, The Emirates of Northern Nigeria (1966) Hugh A.S. Johnston, Fulani Empire of Sokoto (1967) Ghislaine Lydon, On Trans-Saharan Trails: Islamic Law, Trade Networks, and Cross-Cultural Exchange in Nineteenth-Century West Africa (2012) Ibraheem Sulaiman, The Islamic State and the Challenge of History: Ideals, Policies, and Operation of the Sokoto Caliphate (1987) Sokoto_caliphate Ibrahim Abd al-Rahman (d. 1829). Born into a noble family in West Africa and trained in the Islamic sciences, studying in the famous scholarly center of Timbuktu, Ibrahim was enslaved in his twenties by the British and ended up in New Orleans in the Americas. After spending nearly 40 years as a slave, he was released by the order of US President John Quincy Adams after the Sultan of Morocco–Mulay Abd al-Rahman ibn Hisham–had requested his release. He returned to Africa and died there. For more, see: Terry Alford, Prince among Slaves (2007) Nānā Asmā’u (d. 1864). In addition to being the daughter of the great Usmān dan Fodīo, she was an important poet, historian, educator, and religious scholar in her own right. She was devoted to the education of Muslim women and continued the reformist tradition of her father. She was fluent in four languages (Arabic, Fula, Hausa, and Tamacheq Tuareg) and was a very prolific writer, composing various works in subjects such as history, theology, law, and the role of women in Islam. As an ardent advocate of the participation of women in society and as a result of her broad-based campaign to empower and educate women, she was one of the most influential women in West Africa in the 19th century. For more, see: Nana Asma’u, Collected Works of Nana Asma’u. Jean Boyd and Beverly B. Mack eds. (1997) Jean Boyd, The Caliph’s Sister: Nana Asma’u, 1793-1865, Teacher, Poet and Islamic Leader (1990) Beverly B. Mack and Jean Boyd, One Woman’s Jihad: Nana Asma’u, Scholar and Scribe (2000) Beverly B. Mack and Jean Boyd, Educating Muslim Women: The West African Legacy of Nana Asma’u, 1793-1864 (2013) Muḥammad Aḥmad ibn ‘Abd Allāh “al-Maḥdī” (d.1885). Sudanese reformist, mystic, revolutionary, and anti-colonial leader who led a major rebellion against the Turco-Egyptian and British forces in Sudan and managed to establish a large state in most of the country. He proclaimed himself the Mahdi, or messianic redeemer, in 1881 and declared that he was divinely-guided and received inspiration from God. As a reformist, he should be understood as belonging to the same broader 19th-century trend which had produced individuals such as Usman dan Fodio, although he made more controversial claims about the nature of his own authority, which, in addition to being a consequence of his own mystical-religious ideas, should be understood in the context of the messianic environment that had taken root in Sudan during this period. The success of his rebellion made him one of the most renowned anti-colonial leaders of the 19th century. For more, see: Dominic Green, Three Empires on the Nile: The Victorian Jihad, 1869-1899 (2007) Fergus Nicoll, The Sword of the Prophet:The Mahdi of Sudan and the Death of General Gordon (2004) John Obert Voll, “The Sudanese Mahdi: Frontier Fundamentalist,” International Journal of Middle East Studies 10 (1979): 145–166 en-muhammad-al-mahdi The_Mahdist_State,_1881-98,_modern_Sudan Malcolm X (d.1965). American Muslim revolutionary, public speaker, and civil rights activist. His contributions to the Civil Rights struggle in the US are well known and require no elaboration and he has continued to exercise a huge influence on African Americans, American Muslims (and others) until this day. For more, see: Saladin Ambar, Malcolm X at Oxford Union: Racial Politics in a Global Era (2014) George Breitman, ed. Malcolm X: Selected Speeches and Statements (1994) Malcolm X, The Autobiography of Malcolm X: As Told to Alex Haley (1987)
Posted on: Fri, 21 Nov 2014 12:42:20 +0000
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