ISLAM IN THE NON-MUSLIM AREAS OF NORTHERN NIGERIA: c. 1900-1960 Written by Mohammed Sanni Abdulkadir, PhD | | | Introduction Islam is an ideal because of its claim to universality, just like Christianity. Islam is one of the fundamental bases for socio- political values and organization. It influences inform conception of identity, authority and legitimacy. Islam was the only available ideology in the 19th century West Africa for a vast multi-ethnic state which Empire builders used. The term non-Muslim areas or groups refer to the multi-ethnic groups in the southern part of Northern Nigeria. This study is limited to the non- Muslim groups in the present Kogi, Plateau, Taraba, Southern part of Kaduna State, and Benue states in the Federal Republic of Nigeria. During its long history in Northern Nigeria, Islam appears to have occupied different positions and taken up different attitudes towards the people. The pace of the expansion and indeed acceptance of Islam in this part of Nigeria varied significantly from one area to another, one period to another and from being relatively slow in the early stages and then becoming much quicker in the later period. Theoretical and Conceptual Framework African conversion to universal religions (especially Islam) had been an age long phenomenon, but the process of religious change had been a gradual one and often took a prolonged period of incubation regardless of a few cases of warfare. However, following colonial intrusion into the affairs of Africans, the process of conversion became accelerated and many Africans began to change their religion for the universal ones more than ever before. The massive and accelerated conversion of Africans had provoked various explanations from scholars. Engels regarded the Almoravid movement as a clash between the impoverished, morally upright nomadic Berbers of the Sahara, and the wealthy, morally lax Muslim merchants of the towns.# Engels also considered all Islamic movements as having their source in economic causes but clothed in religion.# Weber believed that religious ideals, interests and beliefs as well as material interests play a significant role in the emergence of religious movement. Durkheim wrote that traveling and migration affect ones views of the world, particularly on issues concerning religion.# Levtzion looked at the method of conversion from the individual and communal perspectives. The individual conversion involved a slow space by individuals or small groups, whilst communal conversion involved no definite crossing of religious frontiers and there was hardly a break between past traditions and customs.# Horton opined that the conversion of Africans to Islam or Christianity was due to the development of their traditional cosmology in response to their socio- economic condition under colonial rule. He maintained that Islam only acted as a stimulator and accelerator of change, and that Islam gained more converts because it seemed to have fairly contended with the catalystic role by accommodating traditional practices.# Fisher is of the notion that Muslim pattern of conversion is characterized by three stages: quarantine, mixing and reform. Quarantine was the stage when the faith was upheld only by migrant community traders, or refugees, or clerics at the service of their non-Muslim hosts. Because the participants were entirely foreigners, orthodoxy was relatively maintained. The stage of mixing was when the hosts began to convert to Islam in large number, but the converts still combined Islamic tenets with their traditional practices. The reform stage emerged after centuries with the urgent need for establishing the rule of the saints. According to him, Africa was already a conducive ground for the spread of Islam.# Watt pointed out that religious change could only take place through economic changes as well as in the tradition of the people. Because African traditions are similar to those of Islam, many Africans favored and preferred Islam.# The importance of trade and commerce in Islam has made some scholars to believe that the religion of Islam was first and foremost a religion of trade. Trimingham credited trade and centralization for the spread of Islam. States that were structurally organized were prone to easy Islamic conversion than the stateless societies. Equally, centralized states fostered and protected trade both internally and externally. In effect, Islam largely spread through the activities of traders.# Lewis asserted that the rulers and the ruled in a centralized polity opted for Islam in order to enhance their position.# According to Paden, changes for a universal religion might be due to changes in political culture and the structure of a society.# Ayandele maintained that Islam began conversion from the top and permeated through the already converted chiefs and down to the ordinary people.# Clarke claimed that Islam spread first among the ruling classes, merchants and the town dwellers before being carried to the rural areas. He further added that Islam’s main strength in West Africa had been among the privileged classes, the rulers, the administrators, the scholars and the merchants.# Inalegwu blamed the lack of spread of Islam among the Idoma on the fragmented structure of the society.# These contentions are to some extent true of certain societies in Africa and communities in Nigeria, but certainly not among the non- Muslims in Northern Nigeria. Following is an attempt to comprehend the causes of this phenomenon. Islam in the Non-Muslim Areas of Northern Nigeria: 1900-1960 This section discusses the spread and acceptance of Islam during the colonial period. Some of the factors responsible included the colonial conquest and occupation, construction of road networks and railway lines, imposition of Muslim chiefs, establishment of Koranic schools, observation of Muslim festivals, inter- marriages, the economic depression of the 1930s and the Second World War. The spread of Islam during the colonial period appeared to have started with the conquest of the non-Muslim areas of the North. During the British invasion, conquest and occupation, majority of the rank and file of the occupying forces were Muslims recruited mainly from among the Hausa, Yoruba and Nupe. Some of them had earlier served the British firms like the Royal Niger Company as intermediaries in the trading relations with the local people, and therefore knew the terrains very well. During the conquest, they were used as spies, carriers and recruits by the West African Frontier Force (WAFF). After the conquest, garrisons of the colonial force were stationed in several areas in the non- Muslim areas. Typical example will suffice. After the conquest of Idah (the ancient capital of the Igala kingdom) in 1896, a garrison was stationed there up to 1900 for the conquest of the rest of Igalaland. The garrison was relocated to Akwacha in Dekina District in 1900, after the conquest of the area. The rank and file of the garrison stationed there numbered 400 as well as 115 carriers and servants. In 1904, the WAFF garrison was moved to Ankpa after conquering the town, where it was maintained until 1933 when they moved to Enugu. At Ankpa, the garrison stationed there comprised of 262 African rank and file. But the police (comprising mostly of Muslim origin) remained in the town until 1940.# Although the British were worried of the probable development of Muslim fanaticism among the rank and file, instructions were given for the building of mosques for the troops as well as the employment of mallams to look after their welfare.# This development had contributed to the establishment of a military tradition and a Muslim association and the creation of a cosmopolitan environment that attracted Muslim professionals. A further development was inter-marriages between them and the host communities and the evolution of a Muslim tradition and culture such as the mode of dress and the giving of indigene children to foreign mallams for traditional Koranic education and scholarship. Collectively, these developments greatly contributed to the wide-spread Islamization (conversion) in the area as well as the surrounding region. Indeed, the introduction of Islam to Ibo-Eze Division, the first area that Islam started in the whole of Igbo land, was credited to the Igala Muslims from the Ankpa area as well the Nupe who settled in the area, inter-married with the local community, practiced Islamic teachings and built mosques in Ibagwa-Nkwo close to Nsukka.# The construction of a network of roads and railway lines equally contributed to the spread of Islam during this period. The dire need for the movement of troops to troubled spots during the early period of British rule, the movement of staff personnel and conveyance of export produce from and imported merchandise to the interior, led to the construction of road net-works that connected administrative headquarters, urban-economic-nerve centers, major markets and river and sea ports. Between 1913 and 1927, important economic zones and the core north were linked by the railway. In 1913, the Bauchi Light Railway connected the Jos Plateau with Zaria. The Port-Harcourt-Kaduna Eastern Extension line connected Kafanchan and reached Jingere, Naraguta, Bukuru and Jos in 1926. The Jos Plateau was the major coal mining center attracting Muslim miners and workers to the area. Equally, before 1921 railway extension from Enugu had reached Igumale and Oturkpo in Idoma land and Makurdi in Tiv land. The establishment of communication networks witnessed the influx of a sizeable number of Muslims to non-Muslim areas. For example, in 1932, there were 12,944 semi-skilled Hausa laborers in Jos Division alone. And by the 1940s, Muslim population had grown in Jos Native Town where they mostly settled and their religious and economic impacts were being felt. The improvement in communications facilitated the growth of Muslim population and the growth and development of Islam. The establishment of Native Authority schools by the British equally assisted in the spread and development of Islam in the non-Muslim areas. These schools established mostly in the southern part of the non- Muslim areas initially had Arabic (the language of the Koran) as the medium of instruction. This was, however, changed to English in 1928 when it was discovered that all pupils were converting to Islam. Despite this change, the medium of instruction remained the Hausa language and Islam was the only religion taught in the schools. Other subjects were English, Arithmetic, Reading, Writing and General Knowledge. With the wide spread of Islam among the families of the pupils and their neighbors and the influence of the Muslim teachers posted to the area, there were complaints against the influence from these schools by the 1930s. However, the Divisional Officer (D.O) in-charge of Lokoja and Koton-Karifi, Mr. Cox, wrote in 1935 that “It is my opinion that Islamic influence should be encouraged to spread”. Equally, Mr. Squibb, Assistant District Officer (A.D.O) of Kabba Province commented thus “Proselytizing under these circumstances is inevitable. It will certainly become a source of criticism from Missions as was the admission of pagan boys into government schools staffed by Muslims in Muslim areas....”# The administration furthered the interests of the Muslims by giving financial support from the Native Treasuries in terms of grants for the annual repairs or construction of mosques, payment of central mosques Imams and support during religious festivals. Apart from the NA schools, the period also witnessed the growth of Koranic schools where Koranic education, Islamic Science and Islamic Jurisprudence were taught. In the northern part of the non-Muslim areas, Christian education dominated. Before the colonial conquest, Christian missionaries were operating and spreading the gospel. In fact, some of the areas (like the hilly areas of the Jos plateau) were not conquered until the 1920s, and so the majority still lived in the hills and adhered to the traditional religion. The construction of a network of roads in and the extension of the railway to the area contributed to the influx of missionaries and the widespread of Christianity. In fact, the arrival of some missionaries around 1909 made Christianity first established its stronghold in Jos. Both Christians and Muslims in the area saw education as effective means of indoctrinating the children of their converts. Thus schools were built where their religious doctrines were taught among other subjects. However, through the use of education and medical services, Christianity appealed more to the people and eventually attracted large followers than Islam. For example, the 1952 census of Jos Township indicated 85.5% Christians, 12% Muslims and 3.5 traditionalists.# So although Muslim population had grown, their impact was minimal and restricted to the Native Towns. The method of employment into the Native Administration by the British assisted the spread of Islam. During the colonial rule in Northern Nigeria, religion became the determinant of social status, political and administrative recruitment and participation. Within the colonial social strata, Islamic political structure dominated the colonial hierarchical structure while Muslims were given better social status and political role. This was partly because during and even after the colonial era, the entire area of Northern Nigeria was seen through the “Emirate Colored Glasses”. Prejudice against non-Muslims was strengthened by the official pre-occupation with the Emirate system of government. Indeed, between 1900 and 1920, in many non-Muslim areas in the North, where there had been no powerful rulers such as in Ebira, Idoma, Tiv and so on, British Muslim agents, often even their servants, were raised to the status of chiefs. For example, in Tiv land and specifically in Abinsi Division, Dan Afonda, a Yoruba Muslim was imposed as the chief of Makurdi in 1914 and ruled until his death in 1947. He had formally served as a political agent for the District Officers posted to the area. In Idoma land, Hausa, Yoruba and Nupe Muslim settlers were imposed as District Heads. In west Yagba, Nupe Muslims served as District Heads until the 1930s. Even in highly organized communities like the Igala, the British deliberately disorganized it in order to impose such Muslim rulers. Between 1903 and 1914, nine of such alien Muslim chiefs were imposed in several areas in Igala Division.# A typical example was in Dekina District where the following non-Igala District Heads were imposed by the British: Ahmadu Bace Kwace, a Hausa from Bebeji in Kano [1903-1905]; Abdulkadir Kwasau, a Fulani from the royal house in Zaria [1905-1907]; Umaru Mairiga, a Fulani from Zaria [1911-1914]; and Ahmadu, a Yoruba Muslim [1914-1916]. In Idomaland, Momo, a Nupe Muslim was imposed as the District Head of Agatu in 1910. He was followed by Umaru [a Hausa], and then Isa, another Nupe Muslim. Isa ruled over Agatu, Ochukwu, Ojokwu and Boju Districts. In 1911, Auta, a Hausa Muslim, was appointed as District Head of Adoka. Another example was in Borno. Mai Maina Na-Jega was from Jega town in Sokoto, although his mother was from Lokoja. Mai Maina was a spy for the British who visited Sokoto before the conquest of the area, and reported back to Lugard on the preparations made by the local people against the British invasion. After visiting Kano, he went to spy in Borno for the British. As a reward, he was made the District Head of Askira in Borno. But actually, the only connection between him and that town was that his maternal grandfather was enslaved in Borno and then bought by Barth, and then taken to Britain before returning to Nigeria with Bishop Ajayi Crowther. Although the imposition of non-local people led to oppositions by the people, it however contributed to the spread of Islam, since Islamic teachers and preachers now felt relatively free and secured to carry out their missionary activities. The District Heads also favored and encouraged policies that guarantee the interests of Islam. In addition, most of the junior posts in the Native Administrations like tax scribes, N.A. Police, treasurers, interpreters and messengers were Muslims. The presence of the local-Muslim N.A workers was certainly a contributory factor to the spread of Islam because they influenced others in favor of the religion. The wide-wide economic depression of the 1930s witnessed the retrenchment of workers, a 10% reduction in the salaries of workers in Northern Nigeria, fall in the prices of export commodities, starvation and even death in many areas.# In fact, some of the reasons for turning to Islam had been economic hardships, depression, heavy taxes and financial difficulties. It has even been suggested that these forms of economic hardship as well as tyranny which the Christians suffered at the hands of their feudal lords that made them to look to the Muslim rulers as God’s blessing.# In Northern Nigeria, many non-Muslims converted to Islam during this period because professing the religion of Islam and the understanding of the Hausa language appeared to be the only surest ways of getting jobs. Thus many indigenous people who embraced Islam did so because of their quest for jobs and certain social status which they imagined they could acquire by doing so. The 1930s also witnessed immigration of a reasonable number of non-Muslims to Muslim dominated economic-nerve-centers like Kaduna and Kano for paid jobs and to escape economic hardships at home. During the Second World War, many people were recruited into the colonial army from the non-Muslim areas and quartered in Kano. Their association with Muslims in the army and the Muslim population in Kano (a predominantly Muslim city) equally contributed to the acceptance and spread of the Islamic religion. The role of Lokoja town in the dissemination of Islam needs to be stressed. The town was the first headquarters of Northern Nigeria, from where the conquest of most of the north was planned and executed and where the Royal Niger Company and its constabulary (largely of Muslim origin) were stationed for many years. Lokoja also served as the second ‘home’ where the recalcitrant Emirs from Northern Nigeria, who were unwilling to submit to the British or opposed their policies, were exiled to. The exiled Emirs numbering twelve between 1902 and 1941 went to Lokoja with their Muslim entourages and learned scholars.# These Emirs were Abubakar of Bida (1902), Ibrahim Nagwamayse of Kontagora (1902), Jibril Gani (1902), Muhammed Bashir (1903), Aliyu of Kano (1904), Yaro of Katsina (1906), Lamido Bobbo Ahmadu (1909), Ahmadu of Gumel (1915), Kwassau of Zaria (1923), Aliyu Dan Sidi of Zaria (1923), Sule Saleh of Bedde (1941) and Muhammed of Nassarawa (exact date not known). The Emirs, who were scholars as well as religious leaders themselves, dedicated their lives in exile to the teaching of Islam and its tenets. In addition, between 1900 and the 1930s, scholars form the core north cities like Kano, Katsina, Borno, Sokoto and even Bida went to Lokoja and established Islamic schools. Itinerant scholars (numbering fifteen between 1900 and 1940) also visited the town and stayed for a period teaching and preaching the religion of Islam.# The presence and activities of the exiled Emirs, settled and itinerant scholars gradually turned Lokoja into a haven of a modest center of Islamic learning that attracted non-Muslims from the southern parts of the non-Muslim areas. This development greatly enhanced and promoted the spread of Islam and Islamic scholarship not only in the non-Muslim areas, but equally to other parts of Nigeria. Lokoja was equally an important communication provider, especially with the Niger and Benue rivers converging in the town (the Niger-Benue confluence), thereby attracting substantial number of traders, fortune tellers, charm makers and missionaries of different nationalities. As a commercial center and trade emporium as well as a center of Islamic radiation, Lokoja attracted many Muslim traders and Islamic scholars who migrated permanently to the area and intermarried with the local people and extended the spread of Islam beyond the immediate family to a wider audience. Conclusion It is clear that missionary activities, communication networks, political centralization, economic hardships, education, migration and settlement of Muslims in non-Muslim areas as well as colonial rule were some of the important agencies for the spread and acceptance of Islam in the non-Muslim areas of Northern Nigeria. In the non-Muslim areas of Northern Nigeria, colonial as well as Islamic education played a vital role. Islam strengthened its roots after education had been adopted as an essential means of communication among the local people. Indeed, Islamic teachings and education and the religious quality of Islam had helped its spread and success. 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