Jean Paul Sartre’s thought Of Freedom and Responsibility By. HANG Kakda Reasey 1. Introduction May be it is the most crucial and popular topic when we discuss the term of freedom within the framework of philosophical talk, but not means that this is a new one. This issue not just comes to being for many years but for many centuries since ancient Greece. At that time some scholars have tried to deal with the problem of human freedom even not in the same way and the same meaning of freedom but may be in the same form of the idea of freedom. The first democracy conducted at that time especially in Socrates trial is the evidence of the idea of freedom at that time. We can understand this because the basic of democracy is freedom. When we speak out about the word freedom we might imagine to the idea that we can do everything without restrain, free in speaking, walking, or listening what they like. At the same time they also never forget the twin words which always go together with freedom is human responsibility. Human have freedom to act and at the same time they also must have responsibility to their activities too. In contemporary philosophy have attempted to deal with the problem, importantly, that are determinism and free will theories. In determinism stated that human are not free because they were determined by some factors, biology, psychology and social context. For free will supported theory stated that human mind is free they can do and act everything they like no restriction for their mind. Meanwhile, may be one of the most influent in philosophy current in modern time is existentialism. The meaning of existentialism philosophy is takes its direction to the real situation of human life. It focuses on what are important for human welfare rather than metaphysic that think about what abstract and some time intelligible. Existentialist attempt to resolve what are the problems that human are met in daily life and try to guide the people to get happiness and harmony. The well-known philosopher of existentialism who was spook out about human freedom and responsibility not far reach than Jean Paul Sartre the one who strongly have effect by the Second World War. As an atheism existentialist he think that human them self who are the master for their choice and must take responsibility for what they have done. The main ideas of existentialist philosophers are that ´´human are the free being.´´ Its philosophy focus on the individual who have to resolve and live in the confrontation of the world. According this human dignity cannot replace by any other value at all besides their self-value as the free human being as other existentialist, Jean Paul Sartre, considered man as the priority over everything. Man themselves choose one position for what they are going to be and at the same time must to have responsibility for what they have done. 2. Basic Concept of being free Man 1. Being-in-itself and Being-for-itself Now Sartre have laid down the fundamental concept about the region of being are: being-in-itself and being-for-itself which seem to be consciousness. Being-in-itself, for Sartre is mean that the world that we live within has its own existence from man mind. Difference from Descartes who stated that everything exists only in the human mind; they can feel something unless they pay their attention on that object. They can perceive Descartes´ idea through his famous phrase´´ cogito ego sum´´ I think, therefore, I am´´ so if I not think everything appear unknown to me. Sartre stated that´´ the essential point is contingency. I mean that by definition existence is not necessity. To exist is simply to be there. ´´ through the sentence is mean that to be exist is not necessary depend upon something outside it but it is in itself to exist. But for Sartre this exist mere existence cannot declare it identity¬¬, namely rock, tree. This object we consider as independent of consciousness, this thing is the real thing which for Sartre called´´ things-in-themselves.´´ From this standpoint Sartre continue to his idea about conscious beings who are the subject of first idea of being-in-itself. His concept of conscious being is´´ Being-for-itself.´´ For Sartre only being-for-itself that can proclaims the identity and identify the object, being-in-itself. To be a conscious being is to be a conscious of objects and of itself as conscious of them. This point, for Sartre, Being-for-itself is refer to man who are the conscious being who can give the rational judgment to any specific object. Sartre tried to give the argument about the knower and the known. He intended to raises that human being not only come as being-in-itself but also as being-for-itself. He mean that man have a position in the world and at that time conscious of the position that they are standing, further more, conscious of the objects around them. Starting from this basic concept of Sartre that he tried to speak out about humans is being of freedom. In one respect, Man no difference from other thing is, is mean that being there. Unlike other things, man possesses consciousness, consciousness of the world of objects . Being-for-itself is never pure consciousness; it is always consciousness of an object; it is mere transparency through which objects are known . For this reason, man communicates to the world of things and people in the variety ways. For this that Sartre gives the meaning to human life. The world which we live is being-in-itself and this state is no meaning. 2. Sartre´s refute of God: man is abandonment As we have mentioned above the essential idea of existentialist stated that´´ man are being of freedom´´. Many philosophy school especially during the middle age, importantly give the argument for the existence of God. The existentialist, on the contrary, finds it extremely embarrassing that God does not exist, for there disappears with Him all possibility of finding values in an intelligible heaven . Sartre had accepted Nietzeche´s announcement that “God is dead’’ and take s seriously Dostoevsky’s notion that “if God did exist, everything would be permitted’’ . This sentence was become a motto for atheism existentialism. Through this idea, Sartre give his understanding that man is abandonment that is mean that nonexistence of God that this idea influenced all of his writing all the time. First, because there is no God, there is no divine creator and divine conception of man in according with which man was created. This mean, for Sartre thought, human have difference identity no common nature to apply to all humans .Because of no common nature of all humans the word “essence” which stated by many philosophers such as Aristotle was rejected by Sartre. Second, because of there is no God, there is no ultimate reason why anything has happened or why things are the way they are and not some other way. What that happened because, through Sartre, those things depend on itself, it state the meaning that there is no common nature to all humans. This also means that the individual in effect has been thrown into existence without any real reason for being . Thrown into existence, for Sartre, man them-selves must to face and solve whatever they meet by their own ability. Man cannot depend upon anything else what happen to them is themselves who take the burden of those events not other come to intervene or help at all beside man themselves. According to Sartre said that “Man is abandonment”. Abandonment means for Sartre that with the dismissal of God there also disappears every possibility of finding values in some sort of intelligible heaven . On the other hand, because of no God, nothing defines or determines for which something are going to happen. What happen at any time because of thing it-self. For this reason Sartre thought that man are determine by himself and they are free to act and responsible for what they have done. Man’s sense of abandonment is a curious of the fact that everything is indeed permitted, and as a consequence man is forlorn, for he cannot find anything on which he can rely either within or outside himself . The implication of Sartre about the nonexistence of God apply that humans are the source of him-self. What they happened and going happen are the result of their benevolence. Sartre stated further that “where man exist is no God, if it really God exist human will lose his freedom ”. Man must use the time with what they think that it is good for them-selves. This not means that man must not respect religion but that believe must stay on the rational basic. 3. Existence precedes Essence Sartre accepted Nietzsche’s idea that “God is dead”. From this idea, Sartre thought, no common nature for all humans so no essence like other philosophers stated. For Sartre human must to create his or her own essence because no divine concept of man what create man in the same nature at all by which Sartre called “existence precedes essence” . Sartre argues that we cannot explain the nature of man in the same way we describe an article of manufacture. Sartre has explained this through his example of paper knife. His explanation is means that to make a paper knife first of all we must to have the paper and after that we must have the purpose of what kind of material we want to make. By the essence of paper knife we mean the procedure by which it was made and the purpose for which to was produced, the paper knife’s essence can be said to precedes the existence . For Sartre he might think that if God does really exist he also must have the material and the purpose that which he going to create. Each man, in this view, can reach to its fulfillment or realization only through his effort. Although it is true that some of philosophers of the eighteen centuries, including Kant who the atheism but nevertheless he retained the notion, distinctive of the theist and postulate the existence of god is to harmony between happiness and virtue. Past philosophers had maintained that each thing in existence has a definite, specific essence; Aristotle, for example, believes that the essence of being human is being rational. But for Sartre, the person must produce her 0r his own concept. Thus, in the case of human being, Sartre wrote, “existence precedes essence,” by which he meant very simply that you are what you make of yourself. You are what you make of yourself . According to Sartre, we must make the decision to be something or others, we live in the world, in the whole society which we face a lot of people so we must to decide what attitude should we commit to those people. For example, as a teacher standing in front of the students so you must make a quick decision what you should do for the students, to be teaching or charting. We are ourselves have freedom to choose how glorious or tragedy for your life. This is how we are plunged into existence. We exist, we find ourselves here, we are free, because there is no prescription, and we must decide for ourselves, define ourselves as the kind of person we are going to be. The essence (definition) thus follows existence (we are already living) . The end for this point what Sartre called essence just as the second produce after existence. Man first of all must to exist before they can do anything for themselves. The most important consequence of placing existence before essence is human nature is not only that man creates himself but that man’s responsibility for his existence rests squarely upon each man. A stone cannot be responsible, and if man’s essential nature were already given and fixed, he could not be responsible for what he is. 4. Human Freedom and Responsibility 1. Individual Responsibility Begin from the earlier stand point Sartre stated that “human is freedom”. As we have describe about existence precedes essence, man by themselves limit the direction where they should go respectively because each person have difference personality. Human have no common essence or nature that define by divine conception which make all human the same but they are difference in themselves. Human life is life of freedom, because no existence of God, he or she have right to choose the model of living which he or she think that suitable for them. Sartre’s idea about being-for-itself emphasize that human as the sentient being can control themselves by themselves. Their life is the life of freedom. Sartre stated that “Life is a continual series of choices for the individual in which a main determinant of choice is the person as he already is (including his goals for himself, his courage or fear, his feeling of responsibility, his ego-strength or “will power,” etc.). We can no longer think of the person as “fully determine” where this phase implies “determined only force external to the person.” The person, insofar as he is a real person, is his own main determinant. Every person is, in part, “his own project” and makes himself . His atheism idea give the full meaning to this point, because of no God is no limitation for man in their activities. Each individual have full freedom for their decision making for any faced situation. If man making by himself so as the consequence from the decision no one should be blame for what he is doing, thought Sartre. More over Sartre also provide argument for human experience of what have happened to him too. For Sartre man is freedom they have free choice to do what is importance for himself and must to face to the situation and solve those situations by their effort. Because of man is freedom what have happened to him have no effect for his nowadays live at all. What he met and had resolved by any mean yesterday can not use for today problem or it not relate to yesterday experience at all. To solve the problem now they must use their free choice to do for what are they facing. Sartre says that “Since freedom is involved with the future and freedom is man’s identity, man is not tie by his past or by the choices of the past. Thus one’s history, one’s environment, and one’s past motivation in no way hinder his freedom . The meaning is that man are free not determine by any even or experience which they have received and meet. 2. Social Responsibility Sartre not only told man to use their freedom with responsibility for themselves but also for the social as the world too. The wisdom of existentialist is human being; says about human, resolve human problems and try to find happiness for human. Sartre also not goes beyond from this idea. Sartre says “when man chooses in the process if making himself, he choose not only for himself but for all man. He is therefore responsible not only for his own individual but, he is responsible for all men . Even Sartre does not want to evoke any universal law but the idea is similar to Kant’s category imperative. Through Sartre, he not just each individual obtains happiness for their earthly but also he want all man can live in happiness too. Sartre who is the existentialist see that human value is chosen by each human being but those values must be share to all man who lives in the same position (the world). The original idea of social responsibility come from Sartre’s thought of nonexistence of God. Because of no God, man is abandoned he is responsible for himself. Sartre continued that “nothing can be good for us without [also] being [good] for all,’’… In choosing for ourselves, we choose for all. “Thus, our responsibility is much greater than we had supposed it, for it involves all mankinds” . All human are conscious being; they are free to choose any value which fit to them. Because all man are free can do everything Sartre want all man use their freedom by reference to the whole society. The world as social can preserve its existence unless man who live within it share and responsible for each other and also participate in developing and preserving the world together. To participate and work hand in hand with each other all man must have freedom that can do through their opinion. Begin from what people do voluntarily as consequent they can responsible for those activities which come from their idea. When man has responsible for them-selves they are capable to responsible for the social such as the world too. Sartre also says about human escaping of freedom and responsibility too. Some people, for Sartre, pretend that they are haven’t any freedom or responsibility because they want to escapes from this reality. Man is free but they pretend themselves as a thing without freedom, for this Sartre called “bad faith”. Bad faith is attempt to escapes from my freedom by pretending that human affairs are unavoidable or necessary, as is the causal order of things. “We flee ourselves…as a thing.” But bad faith is self-deception, it is a lie we tell to ourselves; it is “a lie in the soul,” Sartre says . This denies of freedom and responsibility by bad faith is pretending that they are determining by nature. From this standpoint Sartre want to state that man are totally free and responsible but they want to escapes from this responsibility because the amount of this work are much for him. So to run away from this he or she must to pretend to be determined by outside force. 3. Man and Religion Jean Paul Sartre is a philosopher who value human live as freedom and refute the existence of God. Believing in God lead people to life of believe but not life of reason or doubt. In such a life man must go according the command; such as Ten Commandments, of Supreme Being and must to scarify their life to this Being. Religious life, man lose confident on their ability in dealing with the problems depend only upon the miracle which would happen through their belief on God. Such a life is no meaning for Sartre. If man cares only God they will lose their time in finding the real happiness for themselves because they afraid that God will punish them and in one word some of God commandment can not practice in real life. Religion just as a mean to educate people to be moral and truce between each other, but it cannot find happiness for man; only man himself must find by himself the meaning of life. For along time; religion had pull down, for Sartre, to live in darkness. Sartre have criticized to religion which killed people who cried against its belief and tried to give the rational proof about the reality of life and especially tries to make people take themselves from those fall belief. Sartre life style is the life upon him-self. Man; on behalf of conscious being, must strive for happiness by their hand not depend on other any outside force. Sartre do not believe in God; even we do know that God exists and also know that values are grounded in God, we still may not know which values are ground in God: we may still not know what the absolute criteria and standard of right and wrong are . What are right or wrong depend on human who define by himself. They choose their own value and at the same time develop those values to any direction which they think that suitable for him. The human earth life value not stay on other supreme Being; called God, because when life start they see man take care of man no any intervention to help them at all. For Sartre want to all human should strive by them-selves to achieve the full meaning that those meaning can be reach unless man try to find by the power as the conscious being. 4. Sartre’s Inter-subjectivity Ethic Jean Paul Sartre’s thought of freedom have participated so must in morality. As we have studied the fundamental concept of moral judgment is freedom, what were judged to be moral or immoral unless the doers have freedom in do these activities. Freedom is mean that man can do everything upon their opinion without any pressure from outside. Freedom is a main factor in human life. If man live without freedom they cannot give any rational judgment for any events of life and only freeman who capable develop the personality. Man who lives under any forcing or threatening of other person cannot reach to the self-realization because they do opposite to their free will. When man loses his free will moral judgment cannot provide for this position. Man have freedom is mean that they do in accordance to their thinking and through what they think so must to responsible for what is the produce of his free will. Only voluntarily act that can give the moral judgment. “Man is freedom” says Sartre. Because of no God so man is abandonment and must choose the value by his own conscious. Because of no God man is free and responsible for what they done. According to Sartre man is “Absolutely free”. Sartre believes that God is dead so man must strive to reach to happiness. Sartre points out that the student was torn between two fundamentally different kinds of morality, the morality of personal devotion and the morality if defending the whole society. Speaking to his audience, Sartre said: Who could help him choose? Certainly not Christian doctrine, both choices satisfy the criteria of a Christian choice. Nor again Kantian ethic, for he cannot consistently treat everyone as an end, for someone will have to be treated as a means. I had only one answer to give. “You’re free, choose…” No general ethic can show you what is to be done . What he want to says is that man is free he or she can choose what he or she think that good for them. Even Sartre stated that what one chosen not only for him-self but for all man but he does not mean like Kant’s ethic duty which want people to set up moral principle and make it universalize before they can practice it. For all man; for Sartre, is mean that man ought to use their freedom and at the same time they must to responsible for what they had done toward other people. Sartre’s subjectivism is no moral rule for man to adopt they are the subject to choose what are good for them. As describe above there is no God so no common human nature or absolute principle for man in common. So each define their nature; essence, by himself. Because “You’re free, choose… No general ethic can show you what is to be done.” No moral ideals, no universal value can guide you . What Sartre says here is about the absending of moral law. Through this standpoint is mean that if have any moral rule of ethical rule that man must to do through that rule man freedom must be lose. Sartre gives all this idea because he want all man set up moral law by him-self but he must be responsible for his moral rule. He continues that “I see that I am alone the source of whatever meaning, truth, or value my world has. I alone, absurdly, am responsible for giving meaning to my world.” The meaning of the world that man defines must be reflects to the freedom and must responsible for this meaning to other people. Without existence of God everything are permitted. No absolute value that man must accept to quid their life; each individual can lead their life by their own value. Because of no God he cannot create any moral foundation for human life so what was considered as moral, right and wrong, good and bad are depend on only each individual judgment. Because of no God no common human nature so no any common value or moral law which man must to share; each have their own moral law. In addition, if we think about Sartre’s thought of being-in-itself we can understand that all things have it own value even man not value it; it still being-in-itself is mean that value-in-itself. Man has the value in each person even no one appreciate him he still have the value in him-self. As we have known, existentialism’s ethic wants to share all values to all human. Sartre takes this idea in his lecture “Existentialism is Humanism”. Through this idea Sartre attempt to share some of the moral value of traditional humanism, specifically the humanism’s value of freedom for all humankind . He rejects a narrow individual subjectivism as the standard of truth. Rather, to discover oneself in the act of conscious thought is to discover the condition of all men. We are in a world of inter-subjectivity. In conclusion, we can see that Sartre’s ethic want all man use their freedom and responsibility for all humankind. Man has freedom to act and choose what that they think it is important and can bring happiness for them. But at the same time they must participate in promoting other welfare too. This is the point that Sartre says that “We are in a world of inter-subjectivity”. Inter-subjectivity is means that each freeman must have duty to responsible for all man. 5. Total Freedom versus Determination For Jean Paul Sartre, he receive his fullest realization in found of freedom is man is free. “I am my freedom”. Man is free in quests or negates anything. For Sartre, because of no God, no divine conception of human nature to apply to all human being and they are conscious being who can decide by his or her rational for the real world. Because of no God so no what to determine for human to accept but as being-for-itself man can take any value without fear of any absolute value. But at the same time there is other theory which stated that man is determine. They are not totally free; he was determined by something outside and inside him. He was determined by his or her biological or psychological determiner. The theory of determinism is mean that the same thing as universal causation; that is, for every result, effect, and event that occurs in reality, a cause or cause exist. Putting this in another way, we can say that there is no such thing as an uncaused result, effect, or event. For determinism what humans choose to do now not because they are free to do that, but indeed they are determine by other outside power. What man choose to do some were determine by the past even that they experienced and such as politic, economic, tradition which would effect to them and their decision making. Some time this theory state that God really exist. Because of God exist so everything that creates by him must be determined by his providence. But now, dramatically, Sartre says that man is totally free no determinism, and thus spontaneous. Sartre says “No factual state whatever is may be (the political and economical structure of society, the psychological’ state, etc.) is capable by itself of motivating any act whatsoever. For an act is a protection of the for-itself toward what is not, and what is can in no way determine by itself what is not. As a conscious being I by my self determine all meaning and value that have existence in this world. For man as being-in-itself and being-for-itself they, conscious being, are capable to raise all question about which they met and decide value should they choose. Man are free in choice; for their free of choice they choose them self as a person who can make all rational judgment for themselves. Unlike, determinism theory of man which state that man are determine; which they choose not because they are free but because they are determine by some condition. For Sartre man are not bound to any historical events as historical determinism stated. In historical determinism argues that man is bound to his historical event, what he experience yesterday may give the effect for to day activities. In contrast to this argument Sartre rejected that what happened and they received through the experience have no effect to the present time decision making at all. Sartre thinks that man is totally free; he maintained that “my freedom as a conscious being enters my own existence. Consciousness is totally free, undetermined, and spontaneous. Since I as totally free, my past does not determine what I am now. Between myself as I am now and my past I have put a gap nothingness. I am free from my past. Sartre; dramatically, denounces all types of determinism, Maxian, Fruadian, or scientific method of determinism. As we known such as Maxian in the historical determinism; Fruadian in the psychological determinism, respectively maintained that man are determine. They can feel free in their thinking but it sometime impossible to state what they think it seem that something determine them from express those idea. Man feel free if they want to sing a song but when they want to sing out they cannot sing as they want. Moreover, some other conditions such as custom, tradition also joint in determine man freedom. The politic, economic; for Maxian determinism, have determine which position that man should be stand. For Max social class of man is depends how much capital do they have? if they are the owner of mean of production and collect a bid amount of capital in their hand they are capable in higher social class. Against this Sartre argue that “my “facticity,” by which he means the contingent circumstances or facts of my life, may be biologically, psychologically, socially, and economically determined, but as conscious being, I choose the meaning they have for me.” This is Sartre’s solution to the free will versus determinism controversy: We are in the sense that we make ourselves out if what condition have made of us, out of out past. We cannot change these facts but we are free in giving them meaning in our own situations, which we construct and reconstruct as our meaning and project change. So what Sartre y to maintain here is man is free. Because of no God so everything were permitted. Man has free choice in choosing what they think good for them. Even in determinism stated that man are not totally free; they are determine by some conditions inside and outside them. Such as economic, politic, custom, tradition, man must make their decision making through this situation. Other behaviorist psychologists such as Skinner and fraud have provided the argument for supporting the idea of determinism. For both of them think that man is being determined by their psychological condition as their biological. Some time man intend to do something but in himself determine him from doing that because he fell something hale him form those felling. In contrast, Sartre says that man is free. Even sometime he met something determine him such as economic, politic but is man himself who choose and give the meaning to those condition. 6. Jean Paul Sartre’s Freedom: Criticisms Our first criticism of Sartre’s freedom is that it has made impossible by rejecting any general moral principle or the ideas as the foundation for moral rule. If moral principles really exist so man must to obey through the rule so it mean that man freedom; for Sartre; is determine to his ideas that man is free. This is the point in his freedom. If we look at our social life we cannot live without any general rules or principle the whole social will become disorder. Because man is out-and-out free, according to Sartre, nothing can stop them from do anything they wish. If moral principles are rejected; as Sartre, what is we call good, bad, right, wrong, just, unjust are no meaning because this principle of this moral theory was rejected. Because of no moral rules are no moral judgment in general; no judgment is mean that one cannot judge that some one is moral or immoral. So what will social become if no any general moral judgment of human conduct? And how can man reach to happiness if they live without moral principles by which these principles want people to live in happiness? Sartre wants man to treat with freedom but if man have any form idea about freedom where man use this freedom to? Which direction that freedom will lead man to? So what Sartre mean freedom will become unbridle freedom and will make dispute among man when they use this freedom without thinking. Second criticism is on Sartre ethical thinking that man should avoid self-deception. Sartre wants man to avoid self-deception but he hasn’t provides any rules for man to avoid this because of man is freedom. If no rules for this such as problem how can man know which is self-deception due to man is free. And they also don’t know how to avoid this deception because no rules for him or her to avoid such deception. Sartre asserts that man should act authentically; but what rules to act authentically. Because no rules; for Sartre, so it mean that no general value of things or any other man. What man act is due to their freedom so it mean that what Sartre said authentically and avoid self-deception are impossible. Third criticism is on Sartre refute the existence of God. For Sartre man is abandonment; because of no God, so man freely in conduct and must to responsible for what they done. Even as being a man they also choose by themselves. Sartre state about nonexistence of God but he give no clear argument that God really dose not exist. He live during the second world war he see tragedy due to the war that man must to face and see nothing from God intervention; Sartre lack of rational argument for refuting the nonexistence of God. He fells that he alone responsible for every thing during the war so he said that man is abandonment. Four criticisms are that he denies any argument for determinism. He rejects both psychological and sociological argument of determinism. We can raise question that man really free in their conduct? For example, in the public place if one wants to act really he can act without thinking other felling. If we thing the reality we all may think about the suitability, tradition and law whether it allow we to act such any particular action or not. We agree with the idea that man is free in their felling of freedom but at the same other condition determines us from doing that. Even our felling not generally free some time we want to do something but at the same time we fell other felling determine us from what we want to think. So what Sartre said man is free it is right in one part but in other part man also determine. Conclusion In summary, Sartre thinks that man not only being-in-itself but also as a being-for-itself. What Sartre wants to speak in reference to is that man is being there. Unlike other being such as stone rock they are as being-in-itself is that is cannot identify about it self. But for man as being-for-itself he can give reflection toward himself as other object. As conscious being man conscious about outside object, for Sartre man never conscious of nothing but conscious of objects. Sartre received Nietzeche’s thought ‘’God is dead” Because of no God so man is abandonment and no general divine conception of human nature to apply to all human being. So man is create the essence by themselves; create the essence is mean that man choose himself what he is going to be including the value as a person. Because of no God it is mean that no any absolute value that all man must to take it; this idea that lead Sartre to his ethical theory. Man is freedom. Man is free in their decision making for themselves and have responsible for their decision. Man no only responsible for himself but also responsible for social too. When he choose he choose for all man because as other existentialist man has their role to preserve and develop the world. Man lives within the world so man must to take cares the world and man who live in this world. Bibliographies Lavine.T.Z, from Socrates to Sartre: the philosophic quest, New York, Bantam book, 1984, Manuel B.Dy,Jr, Philosophy of man: Selected Readings 2nd, Philippine, Goodwill Trading, 2001 Moore.N.B and Bruder.Kenneth, Philosophy: the power of idea, 5th edition, USA, McGrawHill, 2002, Skirbekk.G and Gilje.N, A history of western thought, London, Routledge, 2001 Stumpf.E.S, Socrates to Sartre: A History of Philosophy 5th edition, USA, McGraw Hill, 1966,
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