LOGIC AND ETHICS NO.1 LOGIC – is defined as the science of correct reasoning. - As a “science”,it is a body of information concerning the different relations that arise in our mind when it knows things. - Is not the foundation of scientific knowledge, it is only its tools. By itself, it is incapable of giving a comprehensive criterion of validity. - It merely facilitates in organizing our ideas, expressing them with more accuracy, and drawing from them some legitimate conclusions. - It equips us with logical skills that are needed for intelligent and rigorous inquiry. Formal Logic – concerns itself primarily with the correctness rather than the truth. - It studies in detail the form of the logical process, without focusing on the material content of the argument. - To reason correctly is not the same as to reason truthfully. Material Logic – is concerned with the truth of the material content. - It considers the correspondence of the thought-contents with reality, a correspondence between the logical and the real order. DIVISION OF LOGIC: 1. SIMPLE APPREHENSION – Is the act by which the intellect grasps the essence of something. - “Apprehension” – because it lays hold of the thing mentally - “simple” – because the intellect merely takes the thing in without any affirmation or denial about it. 2. JUDGEMENT – is a mental operation that pronounces the identity or non-identity between two ideas. 3. REASONING – is a mental act that proceeds from the previously known truth to a new truth. ARGUMENT – is an inferential thinking composed of conclusion and premises from which the conclusion is inferred. Example: Anything that moves is moved by another; But, the ball moves; Therefore, the ball is moved by another. • The conclusion “the ball is moved by another,” is inferred from the two premises “anything that moves is moved by another” and “the ball moves”. Thus, every argument is composed of a conclusion and one or more premises from which the conclusion is deduced. 2 Kinds of Arguments: 1. Inductive – when all premises are true and conclusion is true. 2. Deductive – is when one or both premises may not be true and the conclusion is not true. IDEAS AND TERMS Simple apprehension – is the first mental operation. - Is the process of grasping or abstracting the essence of a thing without affirming or denying anything about it. Idea – is the mental product of simple apprehension. - It is abstract because it focuses only on the nature or essence it signifies and leave aside the concrete, sensible characteristic of a thing. Term – is the verbal manifestation of an idea. Definition of a Term: 1. It is a sign – a SIGN is something that leads to the knowledge of something else. 2. It is a conventional sign – conventional sign is contrasted with natural sign. - NATURAL SIGN – if the sign is given by nature itself such as the crying of a baby as an expression of pain, or the clouds as a sign of rain to come. - CONVENTIONAL SIGN – if the connection is arbitrarily set by man such as the picture of a man with the shovel on the roadside indicating the presence of a road works. 3. It is expressive of an idea – since idea is abstract, it is made concrete through the use of terms. CONNOTATION AND DENOTATION – Are the logical properties of terms. - A term CONNOTES something when it indicates the meaning of something; - it DENOTES if it refers to something. CLASSIFICATION OF TERMS A. According to Comprehension. 1. Simple – it expresses only one conceptual note. Examples: truth – conformity between the intellect and the thing. being- an existential thing. falsity – non-conformity between the intellect and the thing. 2. Compound – it expresses more than one conceptual note. Examples: MAN may be expressed as – rational animal Human being Person GOD may be expresses as – Infinite Prime mover Intelligent designer 3. Concrete – it expresses something which has attributes that are capable of being perceived through the senses. Examples: Ball, can, shirt, stone, table 4. Abstract – it expresses something as separated from any single object. It denotes the general attributes of many objects. Example: Fear, happiness, heights, knowledge, perfection B. According to Extension: 1. Singular –it represent a single object only. Examples: U.S.A., Philippines, Mexico My father, your sister, his toy This book, that table 2. Universal – it represent not only a class as a whole but also each member of the class. Examples: table, chair, stone, plant, glass, pen, girl 3. Particular - it represents only a part of the universal whether it is definite or indefinite. Examples: many books, some kings, few guest, several trees 4. Collective – it represent a number of things constituting a unit-group or whole. Examples: family, choir, band, fleet, team, battalion C. According to Origin: 1. Immediate – (intuitive) – it is formed from direct perception of things. Examples: empty room, heavy traffic, high building, old man 2. Mediate – (abstractive) – it is formed through mediation of all other ideas. Examples: God, life of Jose, human soul, philosophy D. According to Relation: 1. Compatible – those that can co-exist in a subject. Examples: wise and good; beauty and brains: rich and famous 2. Incompatible – those that cannot co-exist in a subject. They exclude each other. There are four kinds of incompatible ideas: a. Contradictory – those that express a positive and a negative concept. They are mutually exclusive such that the affirmation of one is the denial of the other. Between them, there is no third (middle) possibility. Examples: legal- illegal; patient-impatient; literate-illiterate; valid-invalid b. Contrary – those that express extremes belonging to the same class. Between these ideas, there is a third (middle) ground. Examples: rich-poor; hot-cold; kind-cruel; high-low; beautiful- ugly c. Privative – two opposed ideas, one of which expresses perfection, and the other its lack which ought to be possessed. Examples: sight- blindness; truth-error; wealth- poverty; hearing-deafness; good-evil d. Correlative – two opposed ideas that bear mutual relation to one another that one cannot be understood without the other. They imply each other, because one depends on the other. Examples: cause-effect; whole-part; husband-wife; parent-child E. According to Meaning: 1. Univocal – a term that carries several meaning in its several uses. Examples: ANIMAL – can be used to refer to dog, cat, rat, etc… POLYGON – when predicated to a square and triangle has the same meaning. 2. Equivocal – a term that carries different meaning in its different uses. The term may be equivocal: a. Only in pronunciation – sun and son; sweet and suite; dear and deer; mat and matte; reign and rain b. In pronunciation and spelling – TRUNK of a tree, of a car, of an elephant..BANK where money is deposited or withdrawn, or the riverbank 3. Analogous – a term that carries a meaning in some ways different, and in some ways the same. Examples: GOOD does not have the same meaning in GOOD cement, GOOD job, GOOD medicine, GOOD food. HEAD does not have the same meaning in HEAD of the family and HEAD of the man. F. According to Quality: 1. Positive in form, positive in meaning Examples: life, justice, freedom, truth 2. Positive in form, negative in meaning Examples: murder, massacre, shortage, famine 3. Negative in form, negative in meaning Examples: immature, unprofessional, incompetent, dishonest 4. Negative in form, positive in meaning Examples: immortal, infinite, blameless, unblemished G. According to Object: 1. Real – it expresses something that has existential actuality, whether positive or negative. Examples: clarity; scandal; chair; temperance; unemployment; table 2. Logical – it is used as a conceptual device to facilitate learning. Examples: subject; predicate; classification; phyla; division; genera 3. Imaginary – it has no correspondence in reality but is merely a concoction of the mind. Examples: spiderman; Darna; superman; flying carpet; talking tree
Posted on: Sun, 20 Jul 2014 11:12:55 +0000
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