Problem-Solving Strategies Problem-solving strategies are the steps that one would use to find the problem(s) that are in the way to getting to one’s own goal. Some would refer to this as the ‘problem-solving cycle’. (Bransford & Stein, 1993) In this cycle one will recognize the problem, define the problem, develop a strategy to fix the problem, organize the knowledge of the problem, figure-out the resources at the users disposal, monitor ones progress, and evaluate the solution for accuracy. Although called a cycle, one does not have to do each step in order to fix the problem, in fact those who don’t are usually better at problem solving.[citation needed] The reason it is called a cycle is that once one is completed with a problem another usually will pop up. Blanchard-Fields (2007) looks at problem solving from one of two facets. The first looking at those problems that only have one solution (like math problems, or fact based questions) which are grounded in psychometric intelligence. The other that is socioemotional in nature and are unpredictable with answers that are constantly changing (like what’s your favorite color or what you should get someone for Christmas). The following techniques are usually called problem-solving strategies:[citation needed] • Abstraction: solving the problem in a model of the system before applying it to the real system • Analogy: using a solution that solves an analogous problem • Brainstorming: (especially among groups of people) suggesting a large number of solutions or ideas and combining and developing them until an optimum solution is found • Divide and conquer: breaking down a large, complex problem into smaller, solvable problems • Hypothesis testing: assuming a possible explanation to the problem and trying to prove (or, in some contexts, disprove) the assumption • Lateral thinking: approaching solutions indirectly and creatively • Means-ends analysis: choosing an action at each step to move closer to the goal • Method of focal objects: synthesizing seemingly non-matching characteristics of different objects into something new • Morphological analysis: assessing the output and interactions of an entire system • Proof: try to prove that the problem cannot be solved. The point where the proof fails will be the starting point for solving it • Reduction: transforming the problem into another problem for which solutions exist • Research: employing existing ideas or adapting existing solutions to similar problems • Root cause analysis: identifying the cause of a problem • Trial-and-error: testing possible solutions until the right one is found Eight Disciplines Problem Solving (8D) is a method used to approach and to resolve problems, typically employed by quality engineers or other professionals. Its purpose is to identify, correct and eliminate recurring problems, and it is useful in product and process improvement. It establishes a permanent corrective action based on statistical analysis of the problem (when appropriate) and focuses on the origin of the problem by determining its root causes. Although it originally comprised eight stages, or disciplines, it was later augmented by an initial planning stage. The 8D follows the logic of the PDCA cycle. The disciplines are: D0: Plan: Plan for solving the problem and determine the prerequisites. D1: Use a Team: Establish a team of people with product/process knowledge. D2: Define and describe the Problem: Specify the problem by identifying in quantifiable terms the who, what, where, when, why, how, and how many (5W2H) for the problem. D3: Develop Interim Containment Plan; Implement and verify Interim Actions: Define and implement containment actions to isolate the problem from any customer. D4: Determine, Identify, and Verify Root Causes and Escape Points: Identify all applicable causes that could explain why the problem has occurred. Also identify why the problem has not been noticed at the time it occurred. All causes shall be verified or proved, not determined by fuzzy brainstorming. One can use five whys or Ishikawa diagrams to map causes against the effect or problem identified. D5: Choose and Verify Permanent Corrections (PCs) for Problem/Non Conformity: Through pre-production programs quantitatively confirm that the selected correction will resolve the problem for the customer. (Verify the correction will actually solve the problem) D6: Implement and Validate Corrective Actions: Define and Implement the best corrective actions. D7: Take Preventive Measures: Modify the management systems, operation systems, practices, and procedures to prevent recurrence of this and all similar problems. D8: Congratulate Your Team: Recognize the collective efforts of the team. The team needs to be formally thanked by the organization. 8D has become a standard in the auto, assembly and other industries that require a thorough structured problem solving process using a team approach.[ HEURISTIC In the school environment, students approach concepts, ideas, and problems differently, according to their backgrounds, experiences, studies, etc. These approaches students use are often referred to as heuristics. Therefore, heuristics often refer to problem solving strategies that people use. In our case, we want to concentrate on strategies that students use in mathematics class. The following heuristics are examples of such strategies. Students may use one or more of these problem-solving techniques when faced with a problem. Diagrams - Diagrams help some students organize and piece together information that they have received. For example, students could use tally marks to make sense of the tremendous amount of data. In probability, one often sees students using tree diagrams. Graphs - Graphs help some students visualize problems. They help students organize and piece together information they have received. Patterns - Students often use patterns to predict the correct answer. Some construct tables to recognize different patterns. Special Case - To make problems easier to tackle, students may look at a special case in which they are familiar to gain insight about the general case. Trial and Error/Guess and Check - Some students use a trial and error method to test certain possibilities. Use of Previous Methods - Some students use techniques from previous problems in hopes that the new problem is solved in the same manner. Use of Variables and Equations - Using variables and equations may help students make generalizations about specific situations. Working Backwards - Some students find that once they know the answer, working backwards will help them figure out the process. Problem-Solving Strategies: Algorithms and Heuristics Some problems can be successfully solved by following specific, step-by-step instructions—that is, by using an algorithm. We can correctly assemble the pieces of a new bookcase by following the directions for assembly that come with the package. We can calculate the length of a slanted roof by using the Pythagorean theorem. When we follow an algorithm faithfully, we invariably arrive at a correct solution. However, the world presents many problems for which no algorithms exist. There are no rules we can follow to identify a substitute metal ship, no list of instructions to help us address the destruction of rain forests. In the absence of an algorithm, learners must instead use a heuristic, a general problem-solving strategy that may or may not yield a successful outcome. For example, one heuristic that we might use in solving the deforestation problem is this: Identify a new behavior that adequately replaces the problem behavior (i.e., identify another way that peasant farmers can meet their survival needs). For another example of a heuristic, consider the addition problem in the exercise that follows. Experiencing Firsthand • Grocery Shopping- Solve this addition problem as quickly as you possibly can: You are purchasing three items at the store, at these prices: $19.95 $39.98 $29.97 About how much money are you spending? (Don’t worry about a possible sales tax.) The fastest way to solve this problem is to round off and approximate. The first item costs about $20, the second about $40, and the third about $30; therefore, you are spending about $90 on your shopping spree. Rounding is often an excellent heuristic for arriving quickly at approximate answers to mathematical problems. At school, students typically get far more practice solving well-defined problems than ill-defined ones, and they are taught many more algorithms than heuristics. For example, they are likely to spend more school time learning problem-solving strategies useful in determining the length of planks needed for a treehouse roof than strategies applicable to the problem of deforestation. And they are apt to spend more time using laws of physics to predict when battleships will float than wrestling with ways of preventing the conflicts that require those battleships in the first place. But many real-world problems cannot be solved with cut-and-dried algorithms. Furthermore, few algorithms exist for solving problems outside the domains of mathematics and science. Problem-solving strategies, algorithms and heuristics alike, are often specific to particular content domains. But here are several general problem-solving heuristics that students may find helpful in a variety of contexts: • Identify subgoals. Break a large, complex task into two or more specific subtasks that can be more easily addressed. • Use paper and pencil. Draw a diagram, list a problem’s components, or jot down potential solutions or approaches. • Draw an analogy. Identify a situation analogous to the problem situation, and derive potential solutions from the analogy. • Brainstorm. Generate a wide variety of possible approaches or solutions—including some that might initially seem outlandish or absurd—without initially evaluating any of them. Once a lengthy list has been created, evaluate each item for its potential relevance and usefulness. • “Incubate” the situation. Let a problem remain unresolved for a few hours or days, allowing time for a broad search of long-term memory for potentially productive approaches.(J. R. Anderson, 1990; J. E. Davidson & Sternberg, 1998, 2003; H. C. Ellis & Hunt, 1983; Halpern, 1997a) • Heuristic (/hjʉˈrɪstɨk/; Greek: Εὑρίσκω, find or discover) refers to experience-based techniques for problem solving, learning, and discovery that give a solution which is not guaranteed to be optimal. Where the exhaustive search is impractical, heuristic methods are used to speed up the process of finding a satisfactory solution via mental shortcuts to ease the cognitive load of making a decision. Examples of this method include using a rule of thumb, an educated guess, an intuitive judgment, stereotyping, or common sense. • In more precise terms, heuristics are strategies using readily accessible, though loosely applicable, information to control problem solving in human beings and machines.[1] Problem-Solving Skills – Start Here! Problem solving is a key skill, and its one that can make a huge difference to your career. At work, problems are at the center of what many people do every day. Youre either solving a problem for a client (internal or external), supporting those who are solving problems, or discovering new problems to solve. The problems you face can be large or small, simple or complex, and easy or difficult to solve. Regardless of the nature of the problems, a fundamental part of every managers role is finding ways to solve them. So, being a confident problem solver is really important to your success. Much of that confidence comes from having a good process to use when approaching a problem. With one, you can solve problems quickly and effectively. Without one, your solutions may be ineffective, or youll get stuck and do nothing, with sometimes painful consequences. There are four basic steps in problem solving: 1. Defining the problem. 2. Generating alternatives. 3. Evaluating and selecting alternatives. 4. Implementing solutions. Steps 2 to 4 of this process are covered in depth in other areas of Mind Tools. For these, see our sections on Creativity for step 2 (generating alternatives); Decision Making for step 3 (evaluating and selecting alternatives); and Project Management for step 4 (implementing solutions). The articles in this Problem Solving section of Mind Tools therefore focus on helping you make a success of the first of these steps – defining the problem. A very significant part of this involves making sense of the complex situation in which the problem occurs, so that you can pinpoint exactly what the problem is. Many of the tools in this section help you do just that. We look at these, and then review some useful, well-established problem-solving frameworks. Defining the Problem The key to a good problem definition is ensuring that you deal with the real problem – not its symptoms. For example, if performance in your department is substandard, you might think the problem is with the individuals submitting work. However, if you look a bit deeper, the real problem might be a lack of training, or an unreasonable workload. Tools like 5 Whys , Appreciation and Root Cause Analysis help you ask the right questions, and work through the layers of a problem to uncover whats really going on. At this stage, its also important to ensure that you look at the issue from a variety of perspectives. If you commit yourself too early, you can end up with a problem statement thats really a solution instead. For example, consider this problem statement: We have to find a way of disciplining of people who do substandard work. This doesnt allow you the opportunity of discovering the real reasons for under-performance. The CATWOE checklist provides a powerful reminder to look at many elements that may contribute to the problem, and to expand your thinking around it. Understanding Complexity When your problem is simple, the solution is usually obvious, and you dont need to follow the four steps we outlined earlier. So it follows that when youre taking this more formal approach, your problem is likely to be complex and difficult to understand, because theres a web of interrelated issues. The good news is that there are numerous tools you can use to make sense of this tangled mess! Many of these help you create a clear visual representation of the situation, so that you can better understand whats going on. Affinity Diagrams are great for organizing many different pieces of information into common themes, and for discovering relationships between these. Another popular tool is the Cause-and-Effect Diagram . To generate viable solutions, you must have a solid understanding of whats causing the problem. Using our example of substandard work, Cause-and-Effect diagrams would highlight that a lack of training could contribute to the problem, and they could also highlight possible causes such as work overload and problems with technology. When your problem occurs within a business process, creating a Flow Chart , Swim Lane Diagram or a Systems Diagram will help you see how various activities and inputs fit together. This will often help you identify a missing element or bottleneck thats causing your problem. Quite often, what may seem to be a single problem turns out to be a whole series of problems. Going back to our example, substandard work could be caused by insufficient skills, but excessive workloads could also be contributing, as could excessively short lead times and poor motivation. The Drill Down technique will help you split your problem into smaller parts, each of which can then be solved appropriately. Problem-Solving Processes The four-step approach to problem solving that we mentioned at the beginning of this article will serve you well in many situations. However, for a more comprehensive process, you can use Simplex, Appreciative Inquiry or Soft Systems Methodology (SSM). These provide detailed steps that you can use to solve a problem effectively. Simplex involves an eight-stage process: problem finding, fact finding, defining the problem, idea finding, selecting and evaluating, planning, selling the idea, and acting. These steps build upon the basic process described earlier, and they create a cycle of problem finding and solving that will continually improve your organization. Appreciative Inquiry takes a uniquely positive approach by helping you solve problems by examining whats working well in the areas surrounding them. Soft Systems Methodology is designed to help you understand complex problems so that you can start the process of problem solving. It uses four stages to help you uncover more details about whats creating the problem, and then define actions that will improve the situation. Using these tools – and others on our Problem Solving menu – will help you improve your approach to solving the problems that your team and your organization face. Youll be more successful at solving problems and, because of this, more successful at what you do. Whats more, youll begin to build a reputation as someone who can handle tough situations, in a wise and positive way. Working through basic problem-solving processes To approach most problems you will need to: 1. Define the task clearly. What exactly is required? 2. Set priorities. What must be done first? What can be left until later? 3. Develop an appropriate strategy: what steps must you take to address the task? 4. Use experience from similar problems: what do you already know or what have you already done that would offer a starting place or guidance on how to approach the current problem? 5. Set targets: what steps must you accomplish by when? How will you know you have achieved each target? How will you measure your progress? 6. Develop an action plan. List all the steps necessary to achieve each target. Identify the best order for accomplishing each step and a deadline for each. 7. Get started. Do not wait until the last minute, start early on the tasks that you can begin straight away. Keep yourself focused and motivated. 8. Monitor your performance against targets and indicators. Check regularly whether you are meeting your targets and revise your action plan accordingly. 9. Evaluate your performance. How well did you achieve your targets? What did you learn that will be of use to you for future problems and tasks? ________________________________________ Elaborating the problem to find the best solution Research shows that people who spend more time at the beginning working out exactly what a task involves have a better chance of success. This is referred to as elaborating the problem. The most important process in problem-solving is in defining the task. It is worth spending time reflecting on what kind of problem it is, how it is like other problems you have encountered, and what different options there might be for approaching the task. A less successful approach is to launch in too quickly, without undertaking the initial reflection and preparation. Once you have done that, weigh up different solutions. Consider lots of options for how to approach the task or solve the problem. Dont dive in without a good plan. It will take time to weigh up the advantages and challenges of each possible solution. Work towards the best solution by: 1. Knowing what would make a best possible solution How far is this feasible in your circumstances? 2. Working to the deadline. Avoid solutions that cannot be met by the deadline. 3. Discussing your ideas with others. Find out how other people have approached similar problems. 4. Researching your options. Look for hidden advantages and flaws. What has been tried and failed before? 5. Evaluating and costing options. Can you afford them? Do you have the right resources for each? 6. Checking your expertise. Do you have the right expertise and skills? Could you develop these in time? 7. Giving your mind time to play with and mull over different options. ________________________________________ Evaluating the process Consider: • How well did it work? • What would have led to a better outcome? • What else needs to be done? • How far you met deadlines and budgets (where relevant). • How far did the solution meet the task requirements or the needs of the client? • What feedback have you received from others? What does this tell you about your performance? ________________________________________ Writing up the problem Your tutor (or client groups if you are at work) will want to know how you arrived at the solution you adopted. Present clearly: • How you defined the problem. • The parameters of the problem (i.e. the time available, the cost, available resources, expertise, the nature of the brief). • The solutions that you considered with their advantages, disadvantages and interesting features. • How you arrived at the decision you took. • Your method for applying the solution and what you did. • The results. • An evaluation.
Posted on: Wed, 13 Nov 2013 10:36:27 +0000
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