Reflecting Divine Light: al-Khidr as an Embodiment of Gods Mercy (rahma) Irfan Omar Marquette University, Bernard McGinn, who wrote extensively on aspects of Christian mysticism acknowledged that to define mysticism is a problematic task. Mysticism is a controversial dimension of religious practice and thus may be seen through the lens of a variety of categories or frameworks rather than a single one. Thus he notes three general ways of viewing mysticism. Firstly, as part of religion; secondly, as a way of life; and, thirdly, as a process of communicating the inner experience of the presence of the divine. I The subject of this essay may be located primarily in Islamic mystical thought, or more appropriately in Sufi writings. In as much as al-Khidr (Khidr) lies within the realm of Sufism, it would be apt to say that he has been received in all the three different ways within the Islamicate tradition? Khidr has been viewed as one who is at once connected to the Quranic text, the exegesis, the hadith (the prophetic tradition), the Qi$Cl$ al-anbiyii (stories of prophets), massive Sufi literature, as well as various folk traditions, many of which remain fluid and ever changing. The Khidr phenomenon and its associated traditions have taken up such a huge space within the Islamicate traditions and cultures that it is impossible to do justice to this topic in such a short essay. Therefore, here I will primarily focus on the religious/mystical understanding of Khidrs role and how it may be connected with the symbolism of light and spiritual or inward illumination which many Sufis claim to have received through him.3 Bernard McGinn, The Foundations of Mysticisrn: The Presence of God: A History of West em Christian Mysticism, Vol. I, New York 1991, xvIT. 2 Islamicate is a comprehensive term that embraces the variety and richness of Islam and Muslim civilizations generated since the rise of Muslim empires in the eight century. Th~ term ~as first introduced by the noted scholar of Islam, Professor Marshall Hodgson. He VIewed It as something referring not only to the religion of Islam but also and perhaps more importantly ... to the social and cultural complex historically associated with Islam and the Muslims, both among Muslims themselves and even when found among non-Muslims. Marshall G.S. Hodgson, The Venture of Islam: Conscience and History in World Civilization, Vol. I, Chicago 1974,59. 3 This is not to be equated with illumination of the mind alone but rather with a kind. of spiritual realization that is more inclusive of ones totality of being. In religious discourse this occurs as a result of piety on the part of the seekeraod imparting of grace on the part of God. 168 Irfan A. Omar 1. Khidr: Origins and Meanings Khidr is the legendary figure mentioned in the Quran in Surat al-Kahf(18:60-82). These verses primarily deal with an allegorical story about Moses - who is recognized as an influential and important prophet in the Quran - and a mysterious spiritual person, later identified with Khidr. The main thrust of the Quranic story is that the scope of knowledge is so vast that no one besides God may ever be able to acquire even a minute portion of it. There are individuals to whom God has given some of this knowledge and prophets such as Moses, Jesus and Muhammad are certainly considered among these individuals. However, God also gives from his knowledge to those who have traversed the spiritual path (fariqah) - these are the so-called friends of God (awliyii, sing. wall) or the saints, who are given maiirifah (knowledge of God or of the spiritual, hence hidden world, al-iilam alghayb). They have received this knowledge because of their exceptional rigor and piety and because God grants knowledge and wisdom to whomever He will..4 One such person is Khidr who is known in the Quran only as one of Our [i.e. Gods] servants - a man to whom We had granted Our Mercy and whom We had given knowledge of Our own.s The supreme symbolism of the Moses-Khidr story is that divine knowledge may be received in the form of law or revelation (as Moses did) or as mystical, intuitive knowledge (as was given to Khidr). These two forms of knowledge are complementary and neither is above the other; hence Moses journey in search of this servant of God (Khidr) so he can learn something in addition to the knowledge he already received from God as a prophet.6 The name al-Khidr is given to him by the early interpreters of the Quran (mufassiriin) who thought of him as a person who by his very presence revives, regenerates, and makes things green, hence the Arabic, al-Khidr, which means the Green One. Although this quality of greening or making things come alive remains at the center of his identity, in different parts of the Islamic world, Khidr is also known as Khwajah Khizir, Pir Badar, Raja Kidar, Abul Abbas, and Hang Tuah which relate to Khidrs multiple roles as a guide, teacher, and even as a savior of sort and who is venerated widely as a saint.7 From the very beginning Khidr was seen as someone who could not be contained within a single tradition or be confined to a single region in terms of his popular manifestations. In the flowering of the 4 Quran 2:269a, translation by M.A.S. Abdel Haleem, The Quran: A new translation, Oxford 2004,31. 5 Quran 18:65, ibid., 187. 6 Irfan A. Omar, Khiqr in the Islamic Tradition, The Muslim World 83 (1993), 279-94. For a succinct account of Moses meeting with Khidr and their interaction see Anthony H. Johns, Moses in the Quran: Finite and Infinite Dimensions of Prophecy, in: Robert B. Crotty (ed.), The Charles Strong Lectures 1972-1984, Leiden 1987. 7 Some of these names are attempts to link Khidr with a particular era and place; others such as Khwajah, Pir, and Raja are honorific titles that show an elevated status in spiritual and mythical receptions of Khidr. Reflecting Divine Light 169 I~lamic civilization he quite literally became part of many cultures and traditions sImultaneously. After all, he is by profession a wanderer - always on the move - and ~uch like Elijah of the Biblical tradition, seeking to help those in distress and those III need of advice. Khidr is said to appear in green or even in a white cloak. In Sablb al-Bukhiirfwe find a report of the Prophet: He was named al-Khidr because he sat upon barren land and when he did, it became green with vegetation:,8 The greening of a patch of barren land (jarwa) referred to by several early Muslim scholars .implies making the land fertile and in its allegorical sense may also mean rejuvenatIOn of the human spirit, something which Khidr came to be identified with in later traditions. In the present context one might ask, what nationality does Khidr belong to? or what is his ethnic identity? and where does he live?, does he still exist, and so on. However, these are questions that cannot be dealt with in any literal sense, because Khidr belongs to that category of Islamic/religious literature which is known as the imaginal or that which pertains to the world of images (mundus imaginalis).9 Of course, these questions would be considered absurd in the realm of rational assessments of the story of Khidr where it may be viewed as a mere myth. It is futile to seek verification of such stories; however asking such questions may help us understand the various dimensions of the Khidr tradition which has played a major role in Muslim social, cultural, and spiritual life for many centuries. In a postmodem understanding, Khidr perhaps has no particular nationality or ethnicity; he is neither old nor young. We can even say that he continues to exist - even as irrational as it may sound - because countless people claim to have known him and have had some form of interaction with him. Nevertheless, early tajsfr literature (exegesis) provides a variety of answers to the kinds of questions raised above. An enormous wealth of details pertaining to his name, genealogy, appearances, origins and status is found there. For example, alBaghdadi (d. 1324) in his work Tajsfr al-khiizin reports that Khidrs real name was Baliya bin Malkan, while al-Nawawi refers to him as Abul Abbas which he says was his nick name.IO According to Thaiabi (d. 1036), he lives on an island from 8 See SahIh al-Bukhan hadith no· IV.23.614. SahIh al-Bukhan, named after its compiler, is one ofth~ ~~st authoritative hadith ~ollections; Mu~li·ms regard it as one of the foremost textual resources in interpreting the Quran. . . . 9 In Sufi cosmology there is a so-called world of images (iilam al-amthaf) whIch lIes m between (as the isthmus, or barzakh) the other two spheres of existence as it were, ~e world of spirits (iilam aI-rUb) and the world of matter (iilam al-khalq). The wor~d of Images p!ays an important role in connecting the other two in that it allows ordinary yet plO~S human bemgs to possess the ability (by the leave of God) to perform or witness miraculous thmgs. Those who are advanced in their journey on the path to God (fanqah), God may enable them to ha~e such powers. Stories of meeting with Khidr and other miraculous a.cts are ge~erally explamed to have been taking place in the imaginal realm - or the world of Images. Thl~ may be con:pared to dream imagery. An example of one such claim is made by Ibn ArabI, who expenenced several miraculous appearances ofKhidr. . 10 See Ala al-din aI-Baghdadi, Tafslr al-khlizin: Lublib al tawU fi ~aan ~I-tanzn, BeIrut n.d., 205; Ahmad Ibn Hajar al-Asqalani, AI-Zahr aI-NadIr fi naha al-Khaqir, BeIrut 1988, 25. 170 Irfan A. Omar which he protects sailors; he is the guardian of the sea, etc. I I Others have suggested places such as the Nile delta and other such places where two bodies of water converge. Other places where Khidr is discussed extensively are the historical sources, where various narratives of the story are found. These are Muhammad Jarir alTabaris al-Tarlkh; the hagiographicalliterature known as the Qi;;a~ al-anbiyii ; Sufi literature and the biographies of Sufis which are often filled with reports of their meeting with Khidr; and, finally in a variety of folk literature in various languages. As far as accounts of meeting with Khidr are concerned, we have numerous reports by Sufis, scholars, and even non-Muslims who have come in contact with the Islamicate cultures. Carl lung, the influential psychiatrist and author, wrote in his autobiography that he dreamt of Khidr several times and then goes on to elaborate the symbolism of these dream images connecting them to other events in his life. lung in fact made significant use of the figure of Khidr in his writings and identified him as one of the archetypes.12 He also used the Khidr-Moses parable to teach his patients the importance of accepting paradoxes.,,13 There are countless others throughout Muslim history who consider Khidr to be alive and stories of him appearing to people are given as evidence of such claims. Among the many personal accounts of meetings with Khidr, Muhyiddin Ibn Arabi (d. 1240), the famous Spanish Sufi may have left one of the most intricate reports concerning his meeting the mysterious saint. Ibn Arabi writes that while he was on the port of Tunis, Khidr appeared to him as if coming from over the water but he was not wet, and then he proceeded towards a distant light house reaching it while taking only a few steps.14 Ibn Arabi also wrote of praying with Khidr.15 Generally, in Islamic religious literature, Khidr is seen as wall, (saint) as well as a nabl (prophet), although there is a considerable difference of opinion about this in official Islam. Many scholars and exegetes throughout Muslim history regarded Khidr as prophet since he seemed to fulfill the criteria for being one; that is, he has received knowledge from God and has been referred to as a mercy from God. Others questioned whether the modality of knowledge and its purpose can be considered equivalent to that given to prophet Moses since Moses was also a bearer of divine law (rasul).16 These scholars would be more comfortable accepting Khidr as 11 Abu Ishaq Ahmad al-Thalabi, Qi~a~ al-anbiya al-musamma Amis al-majalis, Beirut n.d., 197. 12 Carl Gustav Jung, Four Archetypes: Mother, Rebirth, Spirit, Trickster, translation by R.F.C. Hull, London 2003. 13 Mohammed Shallan, Some Parallels between Sufi Practices and the Path ofindividuation, in: 1. Marvin Spiegelman, et. al. (eds.) Sufism, Islam and Jungian Psychology, Scottsdale/AZ 1991, 91. 14 Muhyiddin Ibn Arabi, AI-Furul)at al-makkiyah, Cairo 1911; rep. Beirut n.d., Vol. 1,86. 15 Peter L. Wilson, The Green Man: The Trickster Figure in Sufism, Gnosis, Spring 1991,23. 16 See Omar, Khiqr in the Islamic Tradition, 284-86. While the debate over whether Khidr was a prophet or not continued for centuries, Reynold A. Nicholson in his Studies in Islamic Mysticism (Cambridge: 1921) brought an additional nuance to bear on this discussion. He argued that perhaps the kind of prophecy Khidr held was that of saintship or (nubuwwatul wiliiya) Reflecting Divine Light 171 .. 17 an lII~portant sal.nt but not as a prophet. Contemporary orthodox religious understand~ ngs of Khldr seldom venture beyond the literal interpretation of the verses in questIOn. In contrast, the mystical and popular views of Khidr are often embellished ~y allegorical and metaphorical interpretations. One might say the former is primanly concerned with an Islamic view of Khidr, while the latter would most certainly fall under the purview of the Islamicate tradition. Therefore, when it is noted that Khidr, from the start seemed larger than life figure who could not be contained withi~ one religious tradition, it also alludes to the fact that before assuming an Islamlcate persona, some aspects of the character which embodies Khidr existed in different fonns and was known by different names. Similarly as a result of Islams influence, other pre-Islamic legends adopted variations of his name substituting it with existing figures in those legends. Thus as the Khidrs Quranic narrative Islamizes some pre-Islamic ideas; these same ideas were recycled in older legends adding newer elements to them. For example, in some Indian legends the patron of sailors is known as Khwajah Khizr, even though these legends have existed long before Islam came onto the scene. There the name, Khwaja Khizr, appears to be a later substitution for an earlier figure that fulfilled the role of a guide and protector deity for the sailors of that region. IS The earliest scholarly discussions of Khidr trace the Quranic narrative to three sources: the Alexandar romance, the epic of Gligamesh, and the story of the wandering Elijah. Since becoming part of the Islamicate tradition, Khidr legend has assumed numerous manifestations and as a result continues to grow. The story of Khidr has played a particularly important role in folklore and popular mysticism as they developed in several Muslim societies. As a mystical figure, Khidr has had an enormous impact on various dimensions of Sufi thought and practice. Among some prominent Sufis he is regarded as the spiritual teacher who continues to guide those who do not have an earthly teacher. 19 As noted above, my focus in this paper is on religious and whereas that of Moses status as a prophet and a lawgiver was that of institution (nubuwwalu [ tashrt). 17 Some modem Quran interpreters have a more radical reassessment of the Quranic verse th~t is regarded as referring to Khidr. There is however, a general consensus amongst most clasSIcal scholars regarding the verse in question (18:65: ..... one of Our [i.e. Gods] servants - a man to whom We had granted Our Mercy ... ) that the servant mentioned is the same person later identified in the hadith as Khidr. These modem writers, most notably, Sayyid Qutb, argue that the servant mentioned in 18:65 should not be identified as Khidr since there is no Quranic evidence. See Sayyid Qutb, English translation by Adil Salahi, In the Shade of the Quran, Fi ~ilal al-Quran, Vol. II, London 2007. . 18 Ananda K. Coomaraswamy, Khwlljll Khadjr and the Fountain of Life in the Tradition ofPers.lan and Mughal Art, in: Ars Islamica I (1994), 173; cf. Irfan A. Omar The Symbol of Inunortahty: Some Popular Images ofKhiQr in the Orient, in: Islamic Cul~e 74 (2000), 33-51. 19 The central Asian Sufism contains a group known as Uwaysls, named after a contemp?~ of Prophet Muhammad who converted to Islam without ever meeting him .thus estabhshIng a model of following a teacher who is distant or invisible yet present and ~vada~le to the followers. Uwaysis regard Khidr as their guide as a hidden master. Annemane SchImmel, And Mu172 Irfan A. Omar mystical understandings of the symbolism represented by Khidr. I will not address the role Khidr plays in popular piety and mythic folklore. Here I am particularly interested in one consideration of Khidrs story, namely, how does Khidrs presence constitute an act of mercy on the part of God? and, following this lead I ask, what does this presence and his being a symbol of divine compassion say about the characteristics endowed within the figure of Khidr with respect to the motif of light and spiritual illumination? II. Khidr: A Symbol of Mercy from God Khidr symbolizes divine mercy (rabma) here on earth which is dispensed through his presence and actions. The Quran describes Khidr as one of Gods special servants to whom God had given both his mercy and his knowledge.2o Since Khidr is seen as a repository of divine knowledge on earth, he is seen as playing a role of a mediator between God and human beings who are on the path and seek divine proximity (qurb). However, Khidr is a recipient of Gods mercy in the same breath as he is a recipient of Gods knowledge; here mercy and knowledge are synonymous. Furthennore, both Gods mercy and his knowledge are meant for all servants of God, in essence for all of creation. Khidr here becomes part of a chain through which rabma of God reaches a worshipper and a seeker of qurb.21 The notion of rabma appears many times in the Quran. For example, Q. 43:32 speaks of Gods prophets as ... the ones who share out ... Lords grace as against the wealthy and powerful who might be more inclined to misuse their power to maintain their wealth. Thus the role of the prophets is deemed to be that of being protectors of the masses and in full accordance with and to realize Gods will on earth. The prophets dispense mercy because God has granted them certain powers, charisma, resources and so on to do so. Thus, in Islamic worldview all prophets and messengers are viewed as symbols of Gods mercy; they are guides to the path to God; they are also known to announce warning of the impending wrath of God for those who cause fitna (anarchy and social unrest). Being the bearers of the knowledge of and from God, they represent Gods concern for the creation. God is most often invoked as most merciful (AI-Rahman) and most compassionate (AI-Rahim). The Quranic usage of the tenn rabma referring to Khidrs knowledge, as granted by God, resonates with other appearances of that tenn in the Quran. Besides Q. 43:32 it may be noted that in Q. 21:107, the Quran, while referring to Prophet Muhammad says, It was only as a mercy that We sent you [Prophet] to all people (rabmat al-/i/ hammad is His Messenger: The Veneration of the Prophet in Islamic Piety, Chapel Hill 1985, 22. 20 Paraphrasing Q. 18:65. 21 Of course, this also raises a number of theological questions as to the viability of the notion of a mediator in orthodox Islam which would fall outside of the scope of the present study. Reflecting Divine Light 173 at~mrn).2:, Here again the us~ge of the term ra/lma denotes the sending of prophets as mercy. from ?od: Quramc verse 18:65b thus points to the fact that this symbol of mercy, I.e. Khldr, IS as such because he is given certain knowledge, knowledge from God. These two ideas converge in this verse enabling one to deduce that Khidr has an elevated status in the Quran, that of being a prophet who, by virtue of being endowed with divine knowledge, is a representative of the mercy of God. 23 F~hermore, to possess divine knowledge is a quality that is often also claimed by samts (awliyii). Khidr is thus both a prophet and a saint as has been identified by numerous persons who have encountered Khidr as well as scholars. I have argued that Khidr is an embodiment of Gods mercy because of the knowledge he has been given by God. This is how he is viewed in terms of his role and function in Muslim cultures as well as depicted by the scholars and commentators of the Quran. This allows one to speak about the probability of an intimate link between Khidrs knowledge and his charism, i.e. between his divine mandate and his ability to perform miraculous and magical acts of healing for the sick and to provide guidance for those who have lost their way. It is these acts or the believability of Khidrs ability to perform such acts which have transformed him into a popular figure among the masses and made him a sought out teacher by the Sufis and the like. Here I am also suggesting that Khidrs role as a depository of divine knowledge makes him a person who reflects divine light (al-nur) in the metaphoric sense of light as the source of spiritual countenance (jaWI or taja/li). Such interpretation of Khidr is primarily to be found in Sufism, the mystical dimension of Islam, where Khidr lends himself to a host of allegorical roles. Below I will address some of the textual and historical connections that may be considered in support of this thesis. III. Gnosis as Light Khidr is someone who is said to possess gnosis, the one on whom God had bestowed mercy and given knowledge from God (Q. 18:65). Gnosis is defined in the following words. If gnosis were to take visible shape, all who looked thereon would die at the sight of its beauty and loveliness and goodness and grace, and every brightness would become dark beside the splendour thereof.,,24 This idea of distinguishing between worldly brightness and divine splendor makes it pla.in that t~e~e is a ki~d. of illumination of the soul which happens as a result ofbecommg a recIpIent of dlvme knowledge. This notion of inward illumination is found in ma~y religious. traditions from Indic to Western religions. Islamic mystical discourse IS no exceptIOn and one can find the term in many Muslim mystical accounts from early in the ninth century. Illumination (kashf or unveiling) of the mysteries of iilam al-ghayb has 22 Translation by Abdel Haleem, The Quran: A new~slation, 31~,208 ... 23 For a general treatment of this issue, see Omar, Khi
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