Ricardos main positions as against Malthus are as follows:— 1. The amount of the currency of a nation is determined for it not simply by its size and population but by the[Pg xx] nature and extent of its trading transactions; and yet, when these elements are given, the currency of one nation will stand to the currency of another in some ascertainable normal proportion, to alter which is to alter the relative value of the currencies affected (VI, VII, X). 2. Such events as a bad harvest, a change in articles of consumption or the transmission of a subsidy abroad, will, by altering the relative value of our currency, produce effects on the exchanges which, apart from their own specific remedy, are permanent, not transitory (I, VII, X). 3. An increase in the amount of gold and silver in a country will lead to an increased use of these metals for general purposes rather than to a proportionate fall in their value, there (II, III). 4. An increase in the value of a nations exports and imports may involve no increase of its wealth or its capital, but may be due to a mere change from one set of articles of consumption to another, or to a carrying trade with foreign capital (IV). 5. In any case, such an increase is not the cause, but the effect of a change in the currency; it is a sign that money is going from where it is cheap to where it is dear (IV, VI, IX, cf. XII and XVII), and the Exchanges are an accurate measure of the difference (VII). 6. There has certainly been an increase of wealth in our own country in recent years, but it has not necessarily been accompanied with an increased rate of profits (V, cf. XX). In Letters XV to XXI the following are the chief propositions:— 1. Restrictions on the importation of corn by keeping up the price of necessaries have a tendency to lower profits (XV), unless, indeed, they are followed by a great reduction of capital (XVI, XVII). 2. The only cause of permanently high or low profits is the facility of procuring necessaries, for on that mainly depends the rate of wages (XVI, XVIII, XIX, XX, XXI, cf. V, and for qualification LXXIX, LXXX). 3. Other causes, such as bad harvests, new taxation, changes in demand, or excessive accumulation, are merely temporary (XX, XXI, cf. Ricardos Pol. Econ. and Tax., ch. vi. On Profits).[Pg xxi] 4. Improvements in agriculture or machinery by increasing productiveness permanently increase profits (XX, cf. V and XXIII). To these may be added— 5. Consumption and accumulation equally promote demand, and are both of them ineradicable tendencies of our nature, the one adding to our enjoyments, the other to our power (XIX). 6. Accumulation increases not only production, but consumption (XXI). 7. It is worth while to establish the truth of a principle, even if we cannot establish its utility (XXI). In Letters XXIII to LXVIII, and in LXXVIII to LXXX, the positions are as follows:— 1. By importing cheap foreign corn the public saves the whole difference in price (XXIII, XXIV). 2. It must be allowed that the prices of articles, besides varying with the amount of necessary labour bestowed on them, vary with the value of their raw material (XXV). 3. Apart from changes in the currency, a rise in the price of corn and a fall in the corn wages of labour, would be a contradiction (XXVI). 4. It follows from the principle of Population that the rate, as distinguished from the amount, of agricultural production, grows not greater, but less, when the increase of population drives agriculture to the cultivation of poorer soils (XXVII, XXVIII, cf. XLIX). 5. This means that the whole cost in corn will be greater in proportion to the whole produce of corn, and, though the whole cost in money may be less in proportion to the whole produce in money, the rate of profits from farming will fall (XXIX). 6. A tax on home corn raises prices twice over, and should be accompanied by a countervailing duty, not necessary in other cases (XXIX). 7. In order of time, the increased price of corn comes first, and the costly cultivation second, but this increase of farmers profits may be due to a fall in general profits that is itself caused by the increased price of corn (XXIX). 8. The progress of wealth has a tendency to lower profits and increase rent (XXIX). 9. Mere increase in quantity of corn will not prevent[Pg xxii] increase in price if the numbers of consumers have increased in equal or greater proportion. So it will be one day in America (XXX). 10. A rise in the price of corn will not be followed by a rise in the price of other commodities, but by a fall in profits (XXXI, XXXIV, XXXV). 11. An addition of rich land to our island would reduce the price of corn by reducing the cost of raising the total supply of corn; and it would not raise the value of manufactured goods (XXXII). 12. High prices, whether caused by depreciation of money or by difficulty of production, are not a public benefit; in the first case, they are a cause of distress, especially to the working classes; in the second, they are a sign but not a cause of prosperity (XXXIII, XXXIV). 13. Facility of production includes skill and appliances as well as fertility of soil, and in that sense, when suddenly introduced in a fertile country, it would for some time extinguish rent (XXXVI). 14. There is no real distinction between productiveness of industry and productiveness of capital; and in the progress of society both of them will diminish, and rents will increase (XXXVI). 15. Wages do not rise when labour is productive unless the productiveness of the labour gives rise to a new capital that demands new labour (XXXVII). 16. There can be no such demand for new labour unless there is a reduction in the value of food (XXXVII). 17. The only permanent cause of diminished demand for capital is the increased price of food (XXXVIII). 18. Low prices are not necessarily a discouragement to production (XXXIX). 19. The need of cultivating less productive soils is the cause of higher nominal and lower real wages (XLII), and it is the only cause in constant and permanent operation (XLVIII, cf. LXIX). 20. Profits depend on wages; wages on the supply and demand of labour, and on the cost of the labourers necessaries (XLIX). 21. Profits will therefore rise if the last are easily produced, unless through stationariness of population demand for labour has increased (L).[Pg xxiii] 22. In two lands with equal capital and equal population, but with different fertility of soil, profits would differ in favour of the more fertile (L). 23. The rate of interest is no sure indication of the rate of profits; and a low rate of interest may co-exist with a low rate of wages and a high rate of profits (LXIII). 24. Profits cannot be said to depend on the proportion which capital bears to labour, for, where profits were lowest, most capital would be needed to produce a given return, and, where highest, least, in proportion (LI). 25. By a rise in the value of money it is possible (though not probable) that a reduced cost of labour, materials, and machinery might be followed by an increase instead of a reduction, in their money value (LXIII). 26. A dearth may increase profits and wealth by making labour cheap (LXIII). 27. Free trade in corn may increase the amount of profits more than a policy of Restriction may increase the amount of Rents (LXVII, cf. LXX). 28. Rent is always a transfer, and never a creation of wealth (LIII, LXVIII). 29. There cannot be two rates of profit at the same time in the same country (LXXVIII), nor under free trade could there be a very different rate in different countries, the cost of necessaries and therefore the rate of wages being brought nearly to a level, allowance being made for differences between one country and another in regard to the standard of living (LXXIX). It seems impossible that under free trade a fertile country, unless agriculture were its sole and only industry, and its capital were small, would long continue to sell its corn at the high prices of its less favoured rivals; the prices would fall to cost price (LXXX). In Letter LXV, and in Letters LXIX to LXXVII, the positions are as follows:— 1. Natural Price should not be described as depending, like Market Price, on Supply and Demand, for it can never permanently fall below or rise above the expenses of production (LXV). 2. A universal over-production is impossible (LXXII, LXXVII), and a glut of particular articles may be cured by a cessation in the production of those articles (LXXII); a superior genius might so lay out our capital even now, that all might be prosperous (LXXIII). [Pg xxiv] 3. It is not demand, but supply, which regulates value, and supply is itself determined by comparative cost of production (LXXIII, LXXIV). 4. If all labour and capital were devoted to production of necessaries, there might then be an over-supply or general glut, of them; but in no other case is such a glut possible (LXXIV, LXXVII). 5. Over-production tends to cure itself by destroying profits, and thereby removing the producers motive for production. But production could not go on when this point had been reached, and therefore the over-production could not last (LXXVI). 6. The remedy would be not the greater consumption of non-producers, but the payment of lower wages, which means the securing of higher profits by the producers. When wages are excessive, the labourers are the unproductive consumers, and the employers who pay them are thereby causing instead of curing the over-production (LXXVI, LXXVII). 7. A diminished demand for labour may mean, not the employment of fewer men, but the payment of lower wages (LXXVII). In Letters LXXVIII to LXXXVIII the positions are:— 1. It is better to take, as a Measure of Value, some foreign commodity [like gold], the cost of producing which is nearly invariable, than to estimate either by the amount of labour or by the amount of corn or of other goods generally that will be purchased by the article measured (LXXVII, LXXVIII). 2. There is nothing in the said labour which fits it to be a better measure of value than anything else; but, on the contrary, to use it as a measure is to involve ourselves in paradoxes (LXXXIII, LXXXV to LXXXVIII). 3. There cannot be an absolute or universal measure of value, for there is no uniformity in the conditions under which commodities are produced, the time taken and the proportion and durability of the capital employed being, for example, very different (LXXXIV).
Posted on: Sun, 11 May 2014 06:02:22 +0000
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