The early history of the people and rulers of Tamil Nadu is a topic in Tamil sources known as Sangam literature. Numismatic, archaeological and literary sources corroborate that the Sangam period lasted for about six centuries, from 300 BCE to 300 CE. Three dynasties, namely the Chera, Chola and Pandya, ruled the area of present-day Tamil Nadu and Kerala. The Chera ruled the whole of present day Kerala and parts of western Tamil Nadu comprising Coimbatore, Karur, Salem and Erode districts from the capital of Vanchi Muthur (thought to be modern day Karur). The Chola dynasty ruled the northern and central parts of Tamil Nadu from their capital, Uraiyur; and the Pandya dynasty ruled southern Tamil Nadu, from capitals at Korkai and Madurai. All three dynasties had extensive trade relationships with Rome, Greece, Egypt, Ceylon, Phoenicia, Arabia, Mesopotamia and Persia. Trade flourished in commodities such as spices, ivory, pearls, beads and gems. Chera traded extensively from Muziris on the west coast, Chola from Arikamedu and Puhar and Pandya through Korkai port. A Greco-Roman trade and travel document, the Periplus of the Erythraean Sea (c. 60– 100 CE) gives a description of the Tamil country and its ports. Between the third and the seventh centuries CE, the three Tamil kingdoms were overwhelmed by the Kalabhras which is sometimes referred to as the Dark Age in Tamil history and little is known about it. The Kalabhras were expelled by the Pallavas, Badami Chalukyas and Pandyas in the sixth century. Medieval Period (600–1300) Kallanai or Grand Anicut, is an ancient dam built on the Kaveri River in Tiruchirappalli, Tamil Nadu, India. It was built by the Chola king and Karikala Chola around the 2nd Century AD[31][32] and is considered one of the oldest water-diversion or water-regulator structures in the world, which is still in use. It still stands as a symbol of Dravidian Engineering.[33][34] During the Kalabhras rule Buddhism flourished in the land of the Tamils. The didactic work Naaladiyar was composed during their reign. It consists of moral sayings in the venpa meter, 400 in number in 40 chapters, each by one Buddhist ascetic, according to tradition. Following the tradition of Tamil Buddhism, Naaladiyar emphasises virtues such as control of the senses, Dhamma (Lord Buddhas teaching), renunciation, and other desirable social qualities. Pali was the court language of the Kalabhras who were also called Kalapara or Kalaparaya according to the Koramangalam inscription.[citation needed] Shore Temple built by the Pallavas at Mamallapuram during the eighth century, now a UNESCO World Heritage Site. During the fourth to eighth centuries C.E., Tamil Nadu saw the rise of the Pallavas under Mahendravarman I and his son Mamalla Narasimhavarman I.[35] The Pallavas ruled a parts of South India with Kanchipuram as their capital. Dravidian architecture reached its peak during Pallava rule. Narasimhavarman II built the Shore Temple which is a UNESCO World Heritage Site. They came into conflict with the Kannada Chalukyas of Badami. During this period, The great Badami Chalukya King Pulakesi II extended the Chalukya Empire up to the northern extents of the Pallava kingdom and defeated the Pallavas in several battles.[36] Pallava Narasimhavarman, however, reversed this victory in 642 by attacking and occupying Badami temporarily.[37] However, a later Chalukya King Vikramaditya II took revenge by repeated invasions of the territory of Tondaimandalam and his subsequent victories over Pallava Parameswarvarman I and the temporary occupation of Kanchipuram.[38] The Meenakshi Amman Temple in Madurai is one of the grand Hindu temples in India. The Pallava dynasty was overthrown in the 9th century by the imperial Rashtrakutas who ruled from Gulbarga. King Krishna III, the last great Rashtrakuta king consolidated the empire so that it stretched from the Narmada River to Kaveri River and included the northern Tamil country (Tondaimandalam) while levying tribute on the king of Ceylon.[39] Much later, the Pallavas were replaced by the Cholas as the dominant kingdom in the 10th century C.E. and they in turn were replaced by Pandyas in the 13th century C.E. The Pandyan capital Madurai was in the deep south away from the coast. They had extensive trade links with the south east Asian maritime empires of Srivijaya and their successors, as well as contacts, even formal diplomatic contacts, reaching as far as the Roman Empire. During the 13th century C.E. Marco Polo mentioned the Pandyas as the richest empire in existence. Temples such as the Meenakshi Amman Temple at Madurai and Nellaiappar Temple at Tirunelveli are the best examples of Pandyan temple architecture.[40] The Pandyas excelled in both trade and literature. They controlled the pearl fisheries along the south coast of India coast, between Sri Lanka and India, which produced some of the finest pearls in the known ancient world. Chola Empire Main article: Chola dynasty The Cholas, who were very active during the Sangam age, were entirely absent during the first few centuries.[41] The period started with the rivalry between the Pandyas and the Pallavas, which in turn caused the revival of the Cholas. A sculpture at Airavatesvara Temple, Darasuram, built by Tamil Chola Kings. The Great Living Chola Temples are UNESCO World Heritage sites. During the ninth century, the Chola dynasty was once again revived by Vijayalaya Chola, who established Thanjavur as Cholas new capital by conquering central Tamil Nadu from the local clans of Mutharayar and the Pandya king Varagunavarman II. Aditya I and his son Parantaka I expanded the kingdom to the northern parts of Tamil Nadu by defeating the last Pallava king, Aparajitavarman. Parantaka Chola II expanded the Chola empire into what is now interior Andhra Pradesh and coastal Karnataka, while under the greatRajaraja Chola and his son Rajendra Chola, the Cholas rose to a notable power in south east Asia. Now the Chola Empire stretched as far as Bengal and Sir Lanka. At its peak, the empire spanned almost 3,600,000 km2 (1,400,000 sq mi). Rajaraja Chola conquered all of peninsular south India and parts of Sri Lanka. Rajendra Cholas navy went even further, occupying coasts from Burma (now Myanmar) to Vietnam, the Andaman and Nicobar Islands, Lakshadweep, Sumatra, Java, Malaya, Philippines [42] in South East Asia and Pegu islands. He defeated Mahipala, the king of Bengal, and to commemorate his victory he built a new capital and named it Gangaikonda Cholapuram. The Chola Empire at its greatest extent, during the reign of Rajendra Chola I in 1030 CE The Cholas were prolific temple builders right from the times of the first medieval king Vijayalaya Chola. These are the earliest specimen of Dravidian temples under the Cholas. His son Aditya I built several temples around the Kanchi and Kumbakonam regions. The Cholas went on to becoming a great power and built some of the most imposing religious structures in their lifetime and they also renovated temples and buildings of the Pallavas, acknowledging their common socio- religious and cultural heritage. The celebrated Nataraja temple at Chidambaram and the Sri Ranganathaswami Temple at Srirangam held special significance for the Cholas which have been mentioned in their inscriptions as their tutelary deities. Natarajan, Siva as celestial dancer, an example of Chola art Rajaraja Chola I and his son Rajendra Chola, who built temples such as the Brihadeshvara Temple of Thanjavur and Brihadeshvara Temple of Gangaikonda Cholapuram, the Airavatesvara Temple of Darasuram and the Sarabeswara (Shiva) Temple, also called the Kampahareswarar Temple at Thirubhuvanam, the last two temples being located near Kumbakonam. The first three of the above four temples are titled Great Living Chola Temples among the UNESCO World Heritage Sites. The Chola period is also remarkable for its sculptures and bronzes all over the world. Among the existing specimens in museums around the world and in the temples of southern India the fine figures of Siva in various forms, Vishnu and his consort Lakshmi, and the Siva saints are the examples of Chola bronze. Though conforming generally to the iconographic conventions established by long tradition, the sculptors worked with great freedom in the 11th and the 12th centuries to achieve a classic grace and grandeur. The best example of this can be seen in the form of Nataraja the Divine Dancer. Brihadeeswara Temple built by Raja Raja Chola I in 1010 CE. During the rule of the great Chalukya King Vikramaditya VI, in the late eleventh to early twelfth century, the Western Chalukyas convincingly defeated the Cholas on several occasions, weakening their empire.[43] [44] With the decline of the Chola dynasty between 1116 and 1185 C.E., the Hoysalas of Kannada country rose to prominence, under King Vishnuvardhana and his grandson, the celebrated Veera Ballala II.[45] [46][47] The Hoysalas extended their foothold in Tamil Nadu around 1225, making the city of Kannanur Kuppam near Srirangam a provincial capital that give them control over South Indian politics that began a period of Hoysala hegemony in the southern Deccan.[48][49] Hoysala Vira Narasimha IIs son Vira Someshwara earned the honorific uncle (Mamadi) from the Pandyas and Cholas. The Hoysala influence spread over Pandya kingdom from who they gained tribute.[50] This revival was short-lived as the Pandya capital of Madurai itself was sacked by Alauddin Khiljis troops under General Malik Kafur in 1316. The Muslim invasion led to the establishment of the short-lived Madurai Sultanate. Summary of Regions in the Sangam and Medieval Periods[citation needed] Chera Nadu or Kongu Nadu: The western region comprising roughly the modern districts of Coimbatore, Nilgiris, Erode, Salem, Tiruppur, Namakkal,Karur and Dharmapuri. Chola Nadu: The eastern region comprising roughly the modern districts of Tiruchirappalli, Thanjavur, Thiruvarur, Nagapattinam, Ariyalur, Perambalur and Pudukottai with UT of Karaikal. Pandya Nadu: The southern districts of Madurai, Virudhunagar, Dindigul, Theni, Sivaganga, Ramanathapuram, Tirunelveli, Thoothukudi. Tondai Nadu or Pallava Nadu: The modern districts of Chitoor, Vellore, Thiruvannamalai, Villupuram,Kanchipuram, Chengulput, Thiruvallur, Cuddalore, Krishnagiri, part of Dharmapuri and Chennai with UT of Puducherry Nadu Nadu: Parts of Villupuram, Cuddalore and Salem districts. Nanjil Nadu: Nagercoil (Kanyakumari district) Sangam texts refer to more Koduntamil mandalams which are not exactly political or socio - cultural units but linguistic agglomerations. by tamilan
Posted on: Mon, 28 Oct 2013 12:12:13 +0000
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