Trial of Socrates Main article: Trial of Socrates The trial of Socrates is the central, unifying event of the great Platonic dialogues. Because of this, Platos Apology is perhaps the most often read of the dialogues. In the Apology, Socrates tries to dismiss rumors that he is a sophist and defends himself against charges of disbelief in the gods and corruption of the young. Socrates insists that long-standing slander will be the real cause of his demise, and says the legal charges are essentially false. Socrates famously denies being wise, and explains how his life as a philosopher was launched by the Oracle at Delphi. He says that his quest to resolve the riddle of the oracle put him at odds with his fellow man, and that this is the reason he has been mistaken for a menace to the city-state of Athens. If Platos important dialogues do not refer to Socrates execution explicitly, they allude to it, or use characters or themes that play a part in it. Five dialogues foreshadow the trial: In the Theaetetus (210d) and the Euthyphro (2a–b) Socrates tells people that he is about to face corruption charges. In the Meno (94e–95a), one of the men who brings legal charges against Socrates, Anytus, warns him about the trouble he may get into if he does not stop criticizing important people. In the Gorgias, Socrates says that his trial will be like a doctor prosecuted by a cook who asks a jury of children to choose between the doctors bitter medicine and the cooks tasty treats (521e–522a). In the Republic (7.517e), Socrates explains why an enlightened man (presumably himself) will stumble in a courtroom situation. The Apology is Socrates defense speech, and the Crito and Phaedo take place in prison after the conviction. In the Protagoras, Socrates is a guest at the home of Callias, son of Hipponicus, a man whom Socrates disparages in the Apology as having wasted a great amount of money on sophists fees. Unity and diversity of the dialogues Two other important dialogues, the Symposium and the Phaedrus, are linked to the main storyline by characters. In the Apology (19b, c), Socrates says Aristophanes slandered him in a comic play, and blames him for causing his bad reputation, and ultimately, his death. In the Symposium, the two of them are drinking together with other friends. The character Phaedrus is linked to the main story line by character (Phaedrus is also a participant in the Symposium and the Protagoras) and by theme (the philosopher as divine emissary, etc.) The Protagoras is also strongly linked to the Symposium by characters: all of the formal speakers at the Symposium (with the exception of Aristophanes) are present at the home of Callias in that dialogue. Charmides and his guardian Critias are present for the discussion in the Protagoras. Examples of characters crossing between dialogues can be further multiplied. The Protagoras contains the largest gathering of Socratic associates. In the dialogues Plato is most celebrated and admired for, Socrates is concerned with human and political virtue, has a distinctive personality, and friends and enemies who travel with him from dialogue to dialogue. This is not to say that Socrates is consistent: a man who is his friend in one dialogue may be an adversary or subject of his mockery in another. For example, Socrates praises the wisdom of Euthyphro many times in the Cratylus, but makes him look like a fool in the Euthyphro. He disparages sophists generally, and Prodicus specifically in the Apology, whom he also slyly jabs in the Cratylus for charging the hefty fee of fifty drachmas for a course on language and grammar. However, Socrates tells Theaetetus in his namesake dialogue that he admires Prodicus and has directed many pupils to him. Socrates ideas are also not consistent within or between or among dialogues. Platonic scholarship The safest general characterisation of the European philosophical tradition is that it consists of a series of footnotes to Plato. (Alfred North Whitehead, Process and Reality, 1929). Although their popularity has fluctuated over the years, the works of Plato have never been without readers since the time they were written. Platos thought is often compared with that of his most famous student, Aristotle, whose reputation during the Western Middle Ages so completely eclipsed that of Plato that the Scholastic philosophers referred to Aristotle as the Philosopher. However, in the Byzantine Empire, the study of Plato continued. The Medieval scholastic philosophers did not have access to most of the works of Plato, nor the knowledge of Greek needed to read them. Platos original writings were essentially lost to Western civilization until they were brought from Constantinople in the century of its fall, by George Gemistos Plethon. It is believed that Plethon passed a copy of the Dialogues to Cosimo de Medici when in 1438 the Council of Ferrara, called to unify the Greek and Latin Churches, was adjourned to Florence, where Plethon then lectured on the relation and differences of Plato and Aristotle, and fired Cosimo with his enthusiasm. During the early Islamic era, Persian and Arab scholars translated much of Plato into Arabic and wrote commentaries and interpretations on Platos, Aristotles and other Platonist philosophers works (see Al-Farabi, Avicenna, Averroes, Hunayn ibn Ishaq). Many of these comments on Plato were translated from Arabic into Latin and as such influenced Medieval scholastic philosophers. Only in the Renaissance, with the general resurgence of interest in classical civilization, did knowledge of Platos philosophy become widespread again in the West. Many of the greatest early modern scientists and artists who broke with Scholasticism and fostered the flowering of the Renaissance, with the support of the Plato-inspired Lorenzo de Medici, saw Platos philosophy as the basis for progress in the arts and sciences. By the 19th century, Platos reputation was restored, and at least on par with Aristotles. Notable Western philosophers have continued to draw upon Platos work since that time. Platos influence has been especially strong in mathematics and the sciences. He helped to distinguish between pure and applied mathematics by widening the gap between arithmetic, now called number theory and logistic, now called arithmetic. He regarded logistic as appropriate for business men and men of war who must learn the art of numbers or he will not know how to array his troops, while arithmetic was appropriate for philosophers because he has to arise out of the sea of change and lay hold of true being. Platos resurgence further inspired some of the greatest advances in logic since Aristotle, primarily through Gottlob Frege and his followers Kurt Gödel, Alonzo Church, and Alfred Tarski. Albert Einstein suggested that the scientist who takes philosophy seriously would have to avoid systematization and take on many different roles, and possibly appear as a Platonist or Pythagorean, in that such a one would have the viewpoint of logical simplicity as an indispensable and effective tool of his research. Many recent philosophers have diverged from what some would describe as the ontological models and moral ideals characteristic of traditional Platonism. A number of these postmodern philosophers have thus appeared to disparage Platonism from more or less informed perspectives. Friedrich Nietzsche notoriously attacked Platos idea of the good itself along with many fundamentals of Christian morality, which he interpreted as Platonism for the masses in one of his most important works, Beyond Good And Evil (1886). Martin Heidegger argued against Platos alleged obfuscation of Being in his incomplete tome, Being and Time (1927), and the philosopher of science Karl Popper argued in The Open Society and Its Enemies (1945) that Platos alleged proposal for a utopian political regime in the Republic was prototypically totalitarian. The political philosopher and professor Leo Strauss is considered by some as the prime thinker involved in the recovery of Platonic thought in its more political, and less metaphysical, form. Deeply influenced by Nietzsche and Heidegger, Strauss nonetheless rejects their condemnation of Plato and looks to the dialogues for a solution to what all three latter day thinkers acknowledge as the crisis of the West. Textual sources and history First page of the Euthyphro, from the Clarke Plato (Codex Oxoniensis Clarkianus 39), 895 AD. The text is Greek minuscule. See also: List of manuscripts of Platos dialogues Some 250 known manuscripts of Plato survive. The texts of Plato as received today apparently represent the complete written philosophical work of Plato and are generally good by the standards of textual criticism. No modern edition of Plato in the original Greek represents a single source, but rather it is reconstructed from multiple sources which are compared with each other. These sources are medieval manuscripts written on vellum (mainly from 9th-13th century AD Byzantium), papyri (mainly from late antiquity in Egypt), and from the independent testimonia of other authors who quote various segments of the works (which come from a variety of sources). The text as presented is usually not much different than what appears in the Byzantine manuscripts, and papyri and testimonia just confirm the manuscript tradition. In some editions however the readings in the papyri or testimonia are favoured in some places by the editing critic of the text. Reviewing editions of papyri for the Republic in 1987, Slings suggests that the use of papyri is hampered due to some poor editing practices. In the first century AD, Thrasyllus of Mendes had compiled and published the works of Plato in the original Greek, both genuine and spurious. While it has not survived to the present day, all the extant medieval Greek manuscripts are based on his edition. The oldest surviving complete manuscript for many of the dialogues is the Clarke Plato (Codex Oxoniensis Clarkianus 39, or Codex Boleianus MS E.D. Clarke 39), which was written in Constantinople in 895 and acquired by Oxford University in 1809. The Clarke is given the siglum B in modern editions. B contains the first six tetralogies and is described internally as being written by John the Calligrapher on behalf of Arethas of Caesarea. It appears to have undergone corrections by Arethas himself. For the last two tetralogies and the apocrypha, the oldest surviving complete manuscript is Codex Parisinus graecus 1807, designated A, which was written nearly contemporaneously to B, circa 900 AD.A probably had an initial volume containing the first 7 tetralogies which is now lost, but of which a copy was made, Codex Venetus append. class. 4, 1, which has the siglum T. The oldest manuscript for the seventh tetralogy is Codex Vindobonensis 54. suppl. phil. Gr. 7, with siglum W, with a supposed date in the twelfth century. In total there are fifty-one such Byzantine manuscripts known, while others may yet be found. To help establish the text, the older evidence of papyri and the independent evidence of the testimony of commentators and other authors (i.e., those who quote and refer to an old text of Plato which is no longer extant) are also used. Many papyri which contain fragments of Platos texts are among the Oxyrhynchus Papyri. The 2003 Oxford Classical Texts edition by Slings even cites the Coptic translation of a fragment of the Republic in the Nag Hammadi library as evidence. Important authors for testimony include Olympiodorus the Younger, Plutarch, Proclus, Iamblichus, Eusebius, and Stobaeus. During the early Renaissance, the Greek language and, along with it, Platos texts were reintroduced to Western Europe by Byzantine scholars. In 1484 there was published a Latin edition of Platos complete works translated by Marsilio Ficino at the behest of Cosimo de Medici. Cosimo had been influenced toward studying Plato by the many Byzantine Platonists in Florence during his day, including George Gemistus Plethon. Henri Estiennes edition, including parallel Greek and Latin, was published in 1578. It was this edition which established Stephanus pagination, still in use today. Modern editions The Oxford Classical Texts offers the current standard complete Greek text of Platos complete works. In five volumes edited by John Burnet, its first edition was published 1900-1907, and it is still available from the publisher, having last been printed in 1993. The second edition is still in progress with only the first volume, printed in 1995, and the Republic, printed in 2003, available. The Cambridge Greek and Latin Texts and Cambridge Classical Texts and Commentaries series includes Greek editions of the Protagoras, Symposium, Phaedrus, Alcibiades, and Clitophon, with English philological, literary, and, to an extent, philosophical commentary. One distinguished edition of the Greek text is E. R. Dodds of the Gorgias, which includes extensive English commentary. The modern standard complete English edition is the 1997 Hackett Plato, Complete Works, edited by John M. Cooper. For many of these translations Hackett offers separate volumes which include more by way of commentary, notes, and introductory material. There is also the Clarendon Plato Series by Oxford University Press which offers English translations and thorough philosophical commentary by leading scholars on a few of Platos works, including John McDowells version of the Theaetetus. Cornell University Press has also begun the Agora series of English translations of classical and medieval philosophical texts, including a few of Platos. See also Cambridge Platonists List of speakers in Platos dialogues Methexis Platos tripartite theory of soul Platonic Academy Platonic love Platonic realism Proclus Seventh Letter Theia mania Notes a. The grammarian Apollodorus of Athens argues in his Chronicles that Plato was born in the first year of the eighty-eighth Olympiad (427 BC), on the seventh day of the month Thargelion; according to this tradition the god Apollo was born this day. According to another biographer of him, Neanthes, Plato was eighty-four years of age at his death. If we accept Neanthes version, Plato was younger than Isocrates by six years, and therefore he was born in the second year of the 87th Olympiad, the year Pericles died (429 BC). According to the Suda, Plato was born in Aegina in the 88th Olympiad amid the preliminaries of the Peloponnesian war, and he lived 82 years.Sir Thomas Browne also believes that Plato was born in the 88th Olympiad.Renaissance Platonists celebrated Platos birth on November 7.Ulrich von Wilamowitz-Moellendorff estimates that Plato was born when Diotimos was archon eponymous, namely between July 29, 428 BC and July 24, 427 BC. Greek philologist Ioannis Kalitsounakis believes that the philosopher was born on May 26 or 27, 427 BC, while Jonathan Barnes regards 428 BC as year of Platos birth. For her part, Debra Nails asserts that the philosopher was born in 424/423 BC. According to Seneca Plato died at the age of 81 on the same day he was born. b. Diogenes Laertius mentions that Plato was born, according to some writers, in Aegina in the house of Phidiades the son of Thales. Diogenes mentions as one of his sources the Universal History of Favorinus. According to Favorinus, Ariston, Platos family, and his family were sent by Athens to settle as cleruchs (colonists retaining their Athenian citizenship), on the island of Aegina, from which they were expelled by the Spartans after Platos birth there. Nails points out, however, that there is no record of any Spartan expulsion of Athenians from Aegina between 431–411 BC. On the other hand, at the Peace of Nicias, Aegina was silently left under Athens control, and it was not until the summer of 411 that the Spartans overran the island. Therefore, Nails concludes that perhaps Ariston was a cleruch, perhaps he went to Aegina in 431, and perhaps Plato was born on Aegina, but none of this enables a precise dating of Aristons death (or Platos birth). Aegina is regarded as Platos place of birth by Suda as well. Footnotes ^ Jones, Daniel; Roach, Peter, James Hartman and Jane Setter, eds. Cambridge English Pronouncing Dictionary. 17th edition. Cambridge UP, 2006. ^ Diogenes Laertius 3.4; p. 21, David Sedley, Platos Cratylus, Cambridge University Press 2003; Seneca, Epistulae, VI, 58, 30: illi nomen latitudo pectoris fecerat. ^ Plato. Encyclopaedia Britannica. 2002. ^ Alfred North Whitehead, Process and Reality (New York: The Free Press, 1978), 39. ^ Irwin, T. H., The Platonic Corpus in Fine, G. (ed.), The Oxford Handbook of Plato (Oxford University Press, 2011), pp. 63–64 and 68–70. ^ Diogenes Laertius, Life of Plato, III * D. Nails, Ariston, 53 * U. von Wilamowitz-Moellendorff, Plato, 46 ^ Diogenes Laertius, Life of Plato, I ^ W. K. C. Guthrie, A History of Greek Philosophy, IV, 10 * A.E. Taylor, Plato, xiv * U. von Wilamowitz-Moellendorff, Plato, 47 ^ Plato, Republic 368a * U. von Wilamowitz-Moellendorff, Plato, 47 ^ Xenophon, Memorabilia, 3.6.1 ^ Nails, Debra (2002). The People of Plato: A Prosopography of Plato and Other Socratics. Hackett Publishing. ISBN 0-87220-564-9. p247 ^ Nails, Debra (2002). The People of Plato: A Prosopography of Plato and Other Socratics. Hackett Publishing. ISBN 0-87220-564-9, p 246 ^ Apuleius, De Dogmate Platonis, 1 * Diogenes Laertius, Life of Plato, I Plato. Suda. ^ Cicero, De Divinatione, I, 36 ^ D. Nails, Ariston, 53 * A.E. Taylor, Plato, xiv ^ Plato, Charmides 158a * D. Nails, Perictione, 53 ^ Plato, Charmides 158a * Plutarch, Pericles, IV ^ Plato, Gorgias 481d and 513b * Aristophanes, Wasps, 97 ^ Plato, Parmenides 126c ^ W. K. C. Guthrie, A History of Greek Philosophy, IV, 11 ^ C.H. Kahn, Plato and the Socratic Dialogue, 186 ^ Diogenes Laertius, Life of Plato, IV ^ Diogenes Laertius, Life of Plato, IV * A. Notopoulos, The Name of Plato, 135 ^ Tarán, L., Platos Alleged Epitaph in Collected Papers (1962-1999) (Brill, 2001), p. 61. ^ Guthrie, W. K. C., A History of Greek Philosophy, vol. IV, Plato: the man and his dialogues, earlier period (Cambridge University Press, 1986), p. 12 (footnote). ^ Apuleius, De Dogmate Platonis, 2 ^ Diogenes Laertius, Life of Plato, IV * W. Smith, Plato, 393 ^ Diogenes Laertius, Life of Plato, V ^ Aristotle, Metaphysics, 1.987a ^ W. A. Borody (1998), “Figuring the Phallogocentric Argument with Respect to the Classical Greek Philosophical Tradition”, Nebula, A Netzine of the Arts and Science, Vol. 13, pp. 1-27 (kenstange/nebula/feat013/feat013.html ^ Leo Strauss, The City and Man (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1964), 50–1. ^ McEvoy, James (1984). Plato and The Wisdom of Egypt. Irish Philosophical Journal (Belfast: Dept. of Scholastic Philosophy, Queens University of Belfast) 1 (2). ISSN 0266-9080. Retrieved 2007-12-03. ^ Huntington Cairns, Introduction to Plato: The Collected Dialogues, p. xiii. ^ Robinson, Arch. Graec. I i 16. ^ Biography of Aristotle. ClassicNote. GradeSaver LLC. Retrieved 2007-12-03. ^ Platonica: the anecdotes concerning the life and writings of Plato, p. 73. ^ Riginos, Alice (1976). Platonica : the anecdotes concerning the life and writings of Plato. Leiden: E.J. Brill. p. 194. ISBN 978-90-04-04565-1. ^ James V. Schall, S. J., On the Death of Plato — The American Scholar, 65 (Summer, 1996.) ^ Riginios, 195. ^ Baird, Forrest E.; Walter Kaufmann (2008). From Plato to Derrida. Upper Saddle River, New Jersey: Pearson Prentice Hall. ISBN 0-13-158591-6. ^ Fine, G., Introduction in Plato on Knowledge and Forms: Selected Essays (Oxford University Press, 2003), p. 5. ^ McDowell, J., Plato: Theaetetus (Oxford University Press, 1973), p. 230. ^ Fine, G., Knowledge and Logos in the Theaetetus, Philosophical Review, vol. 88, no. 3 (July, 1979), p. 366. Reprinted in Fine (2003). ^ Taylor, C. C. W., Platos Epistemology in Fine, G. (ed.), The Oxford Handbook of Plato (Oxford University Press, 2011), pp. 176—187. ^ Lee, M.-K., The Theaetetus in Fine, G. (ed.), The Oxford Handbook of Plato (Oxford University Press, 2011), p. 432. ^ Taylor, op. cit., 189. ^ Gaarder, Jostein (1996). Sophies World. New York City: Berkley. p. 91. ^ Republic, p. 282 ^ Luke Mastin, Plato (2008). The Basics of Philosophy Retrieved on April 22, 2012. ^ Plato, Republic, translated with an introduction by Desmond Lee, Penguin Group (Second revised edition, 1974) pp.298-320. ISBN 0-14-044048-8 ^ Rodriguez- Grandjean, Pablo. Philosophy and Dialogue: Platos Unwritten Doctrines from a Hermeneutical Point of View, Twentieth World Congress of Philosophy, in Boston, Massachusetts from August 10–15, 1998. ^ Reale, Giovanni, and Catan, John R., A History of Ancient Philosophy, SUNY Press, 1990. ISBN 0-7914-0516-8. Cf. p.14 and onwards. ^ Krämer, Hans Joachim, and Catan, John R., Plato and the Foundations of Metaphysics: A Work on the Theory of the Principles and Unwritten Doctrines of Plato with a Collection of the Fundamental Documents, (Translated by John R. Catan), SUNY Press, 1990. ISBN 0-7914-0433-1, Cf. pp.38-47 ^ Elementa harmonica II, 30–31; quoted in Gaiser, Konrad, Platos Enigmatic Lecture On the Good, Phronesis Vol. 25, No. 1 (1980), p. 5. ^ In Aristotelis Physica, p. 151, 6–11 Diels; quoted in Gaiser (1980), op. cit., pp. 8–9. Tarán says that Simplicius received the information concerning Speusippus and Xenocrates and the others from Porphyry, and that—although Porphyry also received much information about Platos lecture from Alexander—this particular bit of information came from Dercyllides; see Tarán, Leonardo, Speusippus of Athens (Brill Publishers, 1981), p. 226. ^ Plotinus describes this in the last part of his final Ennead (VI, 9) entitled On the Good, or the One (Περὶ τἀγαθοῦ ἢ τοῦ ἑνός). Jens Halfwassen states in Der Aufstieg zum Einen (2006) that Plotinus ontology—which should be called Plotinus henology - is a rather accurate philosophical renewal and continuation of Platos unwritten doctrine, i.e. the doctrine rediscovered by Krämer and Gaiser. ^ In one of his letters (Epistolae 1612) Ficino writes: The main goal of the divine Plato ... is to show one principle of things, which he called the One (τὸ ἕν), cf. Marsilio Ficino, Briefe des Mediceerkreises, Berlin, 1926, p. 147. ^ H. Gomperz, Platos System of Philosophy, in: G. Ryle (ed.), Proceedings of the Seventh International Congress of Philosophy, London 1931, pp. 426-431. Reprinted in: H. Gomperz, Philosophical Studies, Boston, 1953, pp. 119-24. ^ K. Gaiser, Testimonia Platonica. Le antiche testimonianze sulle dottrine non scritte di Platone, Milan, 1998. First published as Testimonia Platonica. Quellentexte zur Schule und mündlichen Lehre Platons as an appendix to Gaisers Platons Ungeschriebene Lehre, Stuttgart, 1963. ^ For a brief description of the problem see for example K. Gaiser, Platos enigmatic lecture On the Good, Phronesis 25 (1980), pp. 5-37. A detailed analysis is given by Krämer in his Plato and the Foundations of Metaphysics: A Work on the Theory of the Principles and Unwritten Doctrines of Plato With a Collection of the Fundamental Documents, Albany: SUNY Press, 1990. Another good description is by Giovanni Reale: Toward a New Interpretation of Plato, Washington, D.C.: CUA Press, 1997. Reale summarizes the results of his research in A History of Ancient Philosophy: Plato and Aristotle, Albany: SUNY Press, 1990. However the most complete analysis of the consequences of such an approach is given by Thomas A. Szlezak in his fundamental Reading Plato, New York: Routledge, 1999. Another supporter of this interpretation is the german philosopher Karl Albert, cf. Griechische Religion und platonische Philosophie, Hamburg, 1980 or Einführung in die philosophische Mystik, Darmstadt, 1996. Hans-Georg Gadamer is also sympathetic towards it, cf. J. Grondin, Gadamer and the Tübingen School and Gadamers 1968 article Platos Unwritten Dialectic reprinted in his Dialogue and Dialectic. Gadamers final position on the subject is stated in his introduction to La nuova interpretazione di Platone. Un dialogo tra Hans-Georg Gadamer e la scuola di Tubinga, Milano 1998. ^ Blackburn, Simon. 1996. The Oxford Dictionary of Philosophy. Oxford: Oxford University Press, p. 104 ^ Blackburn, Oxford Dictionary of Philosophy, 104 ^ Hartz, Louis. 1984. A Synthesis of World History. Zurich: Humanity Press ^ Popper, K. (1962) The Open Society and its Enemies, Volume 1, London, Routledge, p. 133. ^ The extent to which scholars consider a dialogue to be authentic is noted in John M. Cooper, ed., Complete Works, by Plato (Indianapolis: Hackett, 1997), v–vi. ^ Bloom, Harold (1982). Agon. Oxford: Oxford University Press, p. 5. ^ p. 9, John Burnet, Platonism, University of California Press 1928. ^ 1264b24-27. Perseus.tufts.edu. Retrieved 2013-07-17. ^ p. xiv, J. Cooper (ed.), Plato: Complete Works, Hackett 1997. ^ Richard Kraut, Plato, Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy, accessed 24 June 2008; Malcolm Schofield (1998, 2002), Plato, in E. Craig (Ed.), Routledge Encyclopedia of Philosophy, Routledge, accessed 24 June 2008; Christopher Rowe, Interpreting Plato, in H. Benson (ed.), A Companion to Plato, Blackwell 2006. ^ T. Brickhouse & N. Smith, Plato, The Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy, accessed 24 June 2008. ^ See W. Guthrie, A History of Greek Philosophy, vol. 4, Cambridge University Press 1975; G. Vlastos, Socrates: Ironist and Moral Philosopher, Cambridge University Press 1991; T. Penner, Socrates and the Early Dialogues, in R. Kraut (ed.), The Cambridge Companion to Plato, Cambridge University Press 1992; C. Kahn, Plato and the Socratic Dialogue, Cambridge University Press 1996; G. Fine, Plato 2: Ethics, Politics, Religion, and the Soul, Oxford University Press 1999. ^ Dodds, E.R. The Greeks and the Irrational. ^ Brandwood, L., The Chronology of Platos Dialogues (Cambridge University Press, 1990), p. 251. ^ Constance Chu Meinwald, Platos Parmenides (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1991). ^ The time is not long after the death of Socrates; for the Pythagoreans [Echecrates & co.] have not heard any details yet (J. Burnet, Platos Phaedo, Oxford 1911, p. 1.) ^ sect. 177, J. Burnet, Greek Philosophy, MacMillan 1950. ^ John M. Cooper, Introduction in Plato: Complete Works (Hackett, 1997), p. vii. ^ D. F. Lackner, The Camaldolese Academy: Ambrogio Traversari, Marsilio Ficino and the Christian Platonic Tradition in Allen and Rees (eds.), Marsilio Ficino: His Theology, His Philosophy, His Legacy (Brill, 2001), p. 24. ^ See: Burrell, D., Platonism in Islamic Philosophy in the Routledge Encyclopedia of Philosophy (Routledge, 1998); D. N. Hasse, Plato arabico-latinus in Gersh and Hoenen (eds.), The Platonic Tradition (De Gruyter , 2002), pp. 33-45. ^ Boyer, Carl B. (1991). The age of Plato and Aristotle. A History of Mathematics (Second ed.). John Wiley & Sons, Inc. p. 86. ISBN 0-471-54397-7. Plato is important in the history of mathematics largely for his role as inspirer and director of others, and perhaps to him is due the sharp distinction in ancient Greece between arithmetic (in the sense of the theory of numbers) and logistic (the technique of computation). Plato regarded logistic as appropriate for the businessman and for the man of war, who must learn the art of numbers or he will not know how to array his troops. The philosopher, on the other hand, must be an arithmetician because he has to arise out of the sea of change and lay hold of true being. ^ Einstein, Remarks to the Essays Appearing in this Collective Volume” in Schilpp (ed.), Albert Einstein: Philosopher-Scientist, The Library of Living Philosophers, vol. 7. (MJF Books, 1970), pp. 683–684. ^ JSTOR 40858970 ^ Irwin, T. H., The Platonic Corpus in Fine, G. (ed.), The Oxford Handbook of Plato (Oxford University Press, 2011), pp. 64 & 74. See also Slings, S. R., Remarks on Some Recent Papyri of the Politeia, Mnemosyne, vol. 40, no. 1 (1987), p. 34: ... primary MSS. together offer a text of tolerably good quality (this is without the further corrections of other sources). ^ Slings, S. R., Remarks on Some Recent Papyri of the Politeia, Mnemosyne, vol. 40, no. 1 (1987), p. 31. ^ John M. Cooper, Introduction in Plato: Complete Works (Hackett, 1997), pp. viii-xii. ^ Manuscripts - Philosophy Faculty Library ^ Dodds, E. R., Plato Gorgias (Oxford University Press, 1959), pp. 35-36. ^ Dodds, E. R., Plato Gorgias (Oxford University Press, 1959), p. 37. ^ Dodds, op. cit., p. 39. ^ Irwin, T. H., The Platonic Corpus in Fine, G. (ed.), The Oxford Handbook of Plato (Oxford University Press, 2011), p. 71. ^ Slings, S. R., Platonis Rempublicam (Oxford University Press, 2003), xxiii. ^ Michael J. B. Allen, Introduction in Marsilio Ficino: The Philebus Commentary (University of California Press, 1979), p. 12. ^ Bernard Suzanna, Les dialogues de Platon: Lédition dHenri Estienne... ^ John M. Cooper, op. cit., pp. xii & xxvii. ^ Oxford Classical Texts - Classical Studies & Ancient History Series - Series - Academic, Professional, & General - Oxford University Press ^ Cambridge Greek and Latin Classics - Series - Academic and Professional Books - Cambridge University Press ^ Cambridge Classical Texts and Commentaries - Series - Academic and Professional Books - Cambridge University Press ^ Terence Irwin, Preface and Introduction in Plato, Gorgias (Oxford University Press, 1979), pp. vi & 11. ^ E. R. Dodds, Plato, Gorgias (Oxford University press, 1959). ^ Gail Fine, Plato 1 (Oxford University Press, 1999), p. 482. ^ Complete Works - Philosophy ^ hackettpublishing/catalogsearch/result/?q=Plato ^ Clarendon Plato Series - Philosophy Series - Series - Academic, Professional, & General - Oxford University Press ^ Cornell University Press : Agora Editions ^ Diogenes Laertius, Life of Plato, II ^ F.W. Nietzsche, Werke, 32 ^ Plato. Suda. ^ T. Browne, Pseudodoxia Epidemica, XII ^ D. Nails, The Life of Plato of Athens, 1 ^ U. von Wilamowitz-Moellendorff, Plato, 46 ^ Plato. Encyclopaedia Britannica. 2002. | birth_place = *Plato. Encyclopaedic Dictionary The Helios Volume V (in Greek). 1952. ^ Seneca, Epistulae, VI, 58, 31: natali suo decessit et annum umum atque octogensimum. ^ Diogenes Laertius, Life of Plato, III ^ D. Nails, Ariston, 54 ^ Thucydides, 5.18 | birth_place = * Thucydides, 8.92 References Primary sources (Greek and Roman) Apuleius, De Dogmate Platonis, I. See original text in Latin Library. Aristophanes, The Wasps. See original text in Perseus program. Aristotle, Metaphysics. See original text in Perseus program. Cicero, De Divinatione, I. See original text in Latin library. Wikisource-logo.svg Diogenes Laërtius, Life of Plato, translated by Robert Drew Hicks (1925). Plato. Wikisource link to Charmides. Trans. Benjamin Jowett. Wikisource.. See original text in Perseus program. Plato. Wikisource link to Gorgias. Trans. Benjamin Jowett. Wikisource.. See original text in Perseus program. Plato, Parmenides. See original text in Perseus program. Plato. Wikisource link to The Republic. Trans. Benjamin Jowett. Wikisource.. See original text in Perseus program. Plutarch (1683) [written in the late 1st century]. Wikisource link to Pericles. Lives. Trans. John Dryden. Wikisource.. See original text in Perseus program. Thucydides. Wikisource link to History of the Peloponnesian War. Trans. Richard Crawley. Wikisource., V, VIII. See original text in Perseus program. Xenophon, Memorabilia. See original text in Perseus program. Secondary sources Browne, Sir Thomas (1646–1672). Pseudodoxia Epidemica IV.xii. Guthrie, W.K.C. (1986). A History of Greek Philosophy: Volume 4, Plato: The Man and His Dialogues: Earlier Period. Cambridge University Press. ISBN 0-521-31101-2. Kahn, Charles H. (2004). The Framework. Plato and the socratic dialogue: The Philosophical Use of a Literary Form. Cambridge University Press. ISBN 0-521-64830-0. Kierkegaard, Søren (1992). Plato. The Concept of Irony. Princeton University Press. ISBN 978-0-691-02072-3. Nails, Debra (2006). The Life of Plato of Athens. A Companion to Plato edited by Hugh H. Benson. Blackwell Publishing. ISBN 1-4051-1521-1. Nails, Debra (2002). Ariston/Perictione. The People of Plato: A Prosopography of Plato and Other Socratics. Hackett Publishing. ISBN 0-87220-564-9. Nietzsche, Friedrich Wilhelm (1967). Vorlesungsaufzeichnungen. Werke: Kritische Gesamtausgabe (in German). Walter de Gruyter. ISBN 3-11-013912-X. Notopoulos, A. (April 1939). The Name of Plato. Classical Philology (The University of Chicago Press) 34 (2): 135–145. doi:10.1086/362227. Plato. Encyclopaedia Britannica. 2002. Plato. Encyclopaedic Dictionary The Helios Volume XVI (in Greek). 1952. Guthrie, W. K. C. (1986). A History of Greek Philosophy (Plato - The Man & His Dialogues - Earlier Period), Cambridge University Press, ISBN 0-521-31101-2 Guthrie, W. K. C. (1986). A History of Greek Philosophy (Later Plato & the Academy) Cambridge University Press, ISBN 0-521-31102-0 Havelock, Eric (2005). Preface to Plato (History of the Greek Mind), Belknap Press, ISBN 0-674-69906-8 Hamilton, Edith & Cairns, Huntington (Eds.) (1961). The Collected Dialogues of Plato, Including the Letters. Princeton Univ. Press. ISBN 0-691-09718-6. Harvard University Press publishes the hardbound series Loeb Classical Library, containing Platos works in Greek, with English translations on facing pages. Irvine, Andrew David (2008). Socrates on Trial: A play based on Aristophanes Clouds and Platos Apology, Crito, and Phaedo, adapted for modern performance. Toronto: University of Toronto Press. ISBN 978-0-8020-9783-5 (cloth); ISBN 978-0-8020-9538-1508645-7 Jackson, Roy (2001). Plato: A Beginners Guide. London: Hoder & Stroughton. ISBN 0-340-80385-1. Jowett, Benjamin (1892). [The Dialogues of Plato. Translated into English with analyses and introductions by B. Jowett.], Oxford Clarendon Press, UK, UIN:BLL01002931898 Kochin, Michael S. (2002). Gender and Rhetoric in Platos Political Thought. Cambridge Univ. Press. ISBN 0-521-80852-9. Kraut, Richard (Ed.) (1993). The Cambridge Companion to Plato. Cambridge University Press. ISBN 0-521-43610-9. Krämer, Hans Joachim (1990). Plato and the Foundations of Metaphysics. SUNY Press. ISBN 0-7914-0433-1. Lilar, Suzanne (1954), Journal de lanalogiste, Paris, Éditions Julliard; Reedited 1979, Paris, Grasset. Foreword by Julien Gracq Lilar, Suzanne (1963), Le couple, Paris, Grasset. Translated as Aspects of Love in Western Society in 1965, with a foreword by Jonathan Griffin London, Thames and Hudson. Lilar, Suzanne (1967) A propos de Sartre et de lamour , Paris, Grasset. Lundberg, Phillip (2005). Tallyho - The Hunt for Virtue: Beauty,Truth and Goodness Nine Dialogues by Plato: Pheadrus, Lysis, Protagoras, Charmides, Parmenides, Gorgias, Theaetetus, Meno & Sophist. Authorhouse. ISBN 1-4184-4977-6. Melc Plato Platos Ethics Friendship and Eros Middle Period Metaphysics and Epistemology Plato on Utopia Rhetoric and Poetry Other Articles: Excerpt from W.K.C. Guthrie, A History of Greek Philosophy, vol. IV, Plato: the man and his dialogues, earlier period, Cambridge University Press, 1989, pp. 8–38 Website on Plato and his works: Plato and his dialogues by Bernard Suzanne Reflections on Reality and its Reflection: comparison of Plato and Bergson; do
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