WHY AND WITH WHAT SUCCESS, DID THE VIENNA SETTLEMENT LEAD TO THE SUPPRESSION OF NATIONALISM IN EUROPE BETWEEN 1815 AND 1830? Mindful of the more than twenty years of war they had endured, the European powers sought to create a permanently peaceful and stable Europe. To achieve that, they crafted the Vienna Settlement where the European states were territorially balanced so that there was none too strong and none too weak. In addition, they agreed on the formation of a Holy Alliance committed to suppressing revolutionary nationalist agitation which was held to be a serious threat to the general peace. Finally they agreed to the holding of periodic congresses to deal with threats to the peace as situations arose. They certainly paid little regard to nationalism in the territorial re-adjustments they made and even to destroy it through the Holy Alliance. As this essay shall show they were on the whole successful in suppressing it between 1815 and 1830. The architects of the Vienna Settlement were driven by the need to create an atmosphere of permanent peace and stability and this often led to the disregard for nationalism. To achieve that they agreed on territorial arrangements geared at creating a balance of power where it was envisaged that no one state become too weak and none too powerful so that it could attack other states and endanger the peace. Thus Belgium was transferred from Austria without any due consideration to the nationalist aspirations of the Belgians because the over-riding consideration was to ensure that the Dutch would protect them from French aggression. For the same reason Austria was allowed to re-assert it authority in Italy. With the exception of Britain, the architects of the Vienna Settlement were conservative absolute rulers who felt threatened by (French) revolutionary ideas such as nationalism and liberalism. Moreover Russia and Austria were multi-national empires whose very existence was threatened by nationalism such that any concession to that principle would be an act of suicide. The Russians, Austrians and Prussians had conservative rulers still firmly convinced of their ‘divine right to rule’ and they had not fought the French for so long only to concede their right to rule and that of their empires to exist at the congress table. Thus the Russians clung onto the Poles and the Finns among other nationalities while the Austrians did likewise to the Slavs, Serbs, Magyars and Italians in their multi-national empire. The tsar even proposed a ‘Holy Alliance’ of Christian monarchs devoted to the suppression of nationalist and liberal forces wherever they reared their heads. Although he privately declared it a “loud sounding nothing” Metternich whole-heartedly endorsed on behalf of the Austrian emperor. It occurred to him that it could be useful for suppressing opposition to monarchical rule. The diplomats at the Congress of Vienna were also motivated by selfish considerations which led to the sacrifice of nationalist aspirations in some cases. There was certainly a case of victors helping themselves to spoils taken from the vanquished or exercising vindictiveness. Hence the Austrians took back the Italian states. Russia also used the opportunity to formalise its acquisition of Finland and Bessarabia both captured in earlier wars against Sweden Turkey respectively. Denmark was punished for remaining too long in Napoleon’s camp and was compelled to hand over Norway to Sweden The Vienna Settlement was on the whole successful in its quest to suppress nationalism from 1815 and well into the 1820s and. Austria invoked the ideals of the Holy Alliance to crush nationalist agitation in the German states that had broken out between 1819 and 1820. This was done through the enforcement of measures such as inquisition into the nationalist secret societies, censorship and strict supervision of the universities. These measures were known as the Carlsbad Decrees. The 1820-21 congresses of Troppau and Laibach also authorised Austria to crush similar agitation that had arisen in the Italian states of Naples and Sicily. Even the Greek revolt against the Turks in 1821 was for the time being fruitless because a combination of Holy Alliance ideals of denying support to nationalists and concerted opposition from Britain and the other powers prevented Russia from aiding the Greeks. On their own the Greeks could not overcome their Turkish overlords. Nationalism did eventually triumph in 1827 but only because the major powers had permitted it to. The 1827 Treaty of London agreed to by Britain, Russia and France made Greek independence possible. It is hardly likely that the powers acted because of a sudden liking for nationalism. It was more likely a case of Russia assisting their fellow Slav and Orthodox brothers against the tyranny of the non-Christian Turks and attempting to expand its influence in Central and Eastern Europe. Britain and France most likely tagged along to prevent unilateral Russian action that would lead to Russian aggrandisement in Central and Eastern Europe. In 1830, Greece was eventually declared to be independent under the joint protectorate of Britain, France and Russia. What therefore emerges is a scenario where nationalism was suppressed and succeeded only where it was permitted to by the major players of the Vienna Settlement. The Greek case was to be the only real success for nationalism up to 1830. Revolts fared up across Europe especially in the Italian states and in Poland but these were ultimately unsuccessful in their objects of expelling foreigners and achieving nationhood. Although shaken and temporarily driven back the Austrians and Russians recovered sufficiently to re-impose themselves in Italy and Poland respectively. Even the Belgian revolt was a year away from success and that victory of 1831 is outside the scope of this essay. Achieving peace and stability through the creation of a balance of power among the European states, preserving the multi-national empires of Austria and Russia were key considerations of the Vienna Settlement. Nationalism was sacrificed and successfully so, to those considerations throughout the period discussed in this essay.
Posted on: Mon, 16 Sep 2013 08:41:59 +0000
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