reviewer :) by: mam aringo Reading processes: a. Word perception- the ability to pronounce the word as a meaningful unit. b. Comprehension- the skill in making individual words construct useful ideas as they are read in context c. Reaction – a judgement on what the author has said d. Integration – the ability to assimilate idea or concept into one’s background of experience so that it is useful as a part of the individual’s total experience. Rate refers to the speed of recognition, comprehension, reaction, and assimilation. Rates are flexible. They vary according to the reader’s purpose and the difficulty of the materials. Fluency means being able to read text accurately, quickly and with expression. Fluent readers can do this because they do not have problems with word recognition. Comprehension is the process of deriving meaning from connected text. It involves word knowledge (vocabulary) as well as thinking and reasoning. Decoding is translating written symbols into sounds. Reading is decoding with understanding. Theoretical Models of Reading 1. Reading and Cognitive Development – according to Jean Piaget and Lev Vygotsky, language and thought interact with and complement each other and that children go through five stages of development: a. Sensorimotor period (birth to 2yrs) – children learn by adapting to the environment b. Preoperation or Preconceptual Period ( 2 to 4yrs) – children begin to develop concepts and associate word with pictures and images. c. Intuitive Thought Period (4 to 7 yrs) – children are introduced to concepts of number, weight, length, and height. They begin to identify sounds and associate these with letters and symbols; these skills are classified as reading readiness skills. d. Concrete Operational Period (8 to 11 yrs) – children at this stage can now read with meaning, give the main idea in a story, note details, and make inferences. e. Formal Operations (11 to 14 yrs) - preteeners are already capable of dealing with hypothesis and propositions. 2. Substrata Factor Theory - the reader organizes his/her skills into working systems according to his/her purposes and demands of task. 3. Whole – to – Part or Schema Theory – Schema is the term used to describe how people, in general, organize and store information. Schema activation, on the other hand, is the mechanism which people access what they know and match it to the information in a text. In so doing, they build on the meaning they already bring to the reading situation. Schemata have been called ‘the building blocks of cognition’ because they represent elaborate networks of information that people use to make sense of new stimuli, events, and situation (Vacca and Vacca, 1990) Top-down processing or the ‘socio¬psycholinguistic, transactional model’ has been used to describe the application of prior knowledge to working on the meaning of a text (Hedge: 2000). This means that reading proceeds from whole to part; from deep to surface; or from inside- out. 4. Theory on Text Data - Reading is a language process that it involves a dialogue between reader and author (Widdowson: 1979 as cited by Hedge: 2000). If this is so, then learning with texts is a strategic act. Six Types of Knowledge to Make Sense of a Text 1. Syntactic knowledge — this helps a reader decode meaning through his/her knowledge of the text’s language features. 2. Morphological knowledge — this has to with language itself It also helps a reader decode meaning through his/her knowledge of language features. 3. General world knowledge — this relates to the reader’s prior knowledge and experiential background. 4. Socio-cultural knowledge – this is also called schematic knowledge and is related to the reader’s background information of things, people, and events that make-up his/her socio-cultural world. 5. Topic knowledge — this has to do with knowledge of a topic, an event, a situation that enables the reader to make sense of a text. 6. Genre knowledge — this type of knowledge enables a reader to work with the language of the text in order to interpret its meaning. What Learners Need to Do When Learning from Text (Ruddell, 1997) 1. Recall prior knowledge 2. Organize information while reading 3. Organize information after reading 4. Synthesize and articulate new learning 5. Learn vocabulary that labels important concepts, elements and relationships 6. Produce or create something new and apply new information What Teachers Need to Do to Guide Students’ Learning from Text (Ruddell, 1997) 1. Determine students’ prior knowledge and previous experience concerning the topic at hand 2. Provide means for students to organize information while reading 3. Provide means for students to organize information after reading 4. Provide means for students to synthesize and articulate new learning 5. Identify and teach vocabulary that labels important concepts, elements and relationships 6. Provide opportunity for students to produce or create something new 5. Metacognition Theory – metacognition according to Flavell ( 1976) is the awareness of and an ability to capitalize on one’s own knowledge and thought processes as they are applied to some specific task. 6. Psycholinguistic Theory and Model - a. Readers approach a text with expectations based on their knowledge of the subject 7. Bottom-up processing or the ‘person on the street’ or ‘common sense model is used to describe the decoding of the letters, words, and other language features in the text. This also means that reading proceeds from part to whole; from surface to deep structure; from text to reader; or from outside-in. Reading in the Content-Areas Content-area reading refers to the ability to learn through reading. Learning in all content areas is supported by strong reading comprehension strategies and study skills. This demands knowledge of how to apply a variety of reading comprehension strategies to different types of texts, analyze the structures and features of expository (informational) texts, and select and vary their reading strategies for different texts and purposes. The Language of the Content Areas a. Science a. Science gives a rich context for genuine language use. From a language acquisition perspective, science can serve as a focal point around which oral language and literacy in ESL can develop. Specifically, science offers: interesting, relevant, and challenging content; opportunities for students to negotiate meanings; an abundance of appropriate language input; conditions for keeping students involved; material for development of reading; activities for development of writing; and experiences with the forms and functions of English. b. Patterns in science Classification Experimental Definition or explanation Problem solving Cause and effects b. Mathematics a. Unlike natural language, math texts have the following characteristic features (Bye, 1975): Straightforward, lack redundancy and paraphrase Are conceptually packed Are of high density Require up-and-down and left-to right eye movements Require a slower reading rate than natural language texts Require multiple readings Are made up of a variety of symbols such as charts and graphs, and Contain a great deal of technical language with precise meanings. b. Patterns in Mathematics Patterns and key words for solving problems Evidence and reasoning Graphic relationship Symbolic relationship Operations (addition, subtraction, multiplication and division) c. Social Studies a. Characteristics Requires an inquiry-based approach in the analysis of concepts Encourages the use of manipulative & multimedia materials Targets specific vocabulary structures & concepts from the stories elicited from students Integrates information & concepts within the context of a main idea or topic b. Patterns Cause and effect Chronological or sequential events Definition or explanation Comparison and contrasts Question and answer patterns d. Literature Elements of the different genre (poetry, short story, drama, novel, essay) Difference between denotative and connotative meanings Moral, message or theme Figurative language Comprehension Strategies 1. Cognitive Strategies Preparation strategies Setting purpose and goals Predicting Previewing 2. Organizational strategies Comprehending the main idea Identifying supporting details 3. Elaboration Strategies Making inferences Drawing conclusions and generalizations 4. Metacognitive strategies Regulating Checking/monitoring Repairing Strategies for developing comprehension (Tierney and Readence, 1991) K-W-L PReP technique Anticipation guide Text Preview ReQuest procedure Question-Answer Relationship (QAR) Strategies for developing comprehension (Tierney and Readence, 1991) K-W-L PReP technique Anticipation guide Text Preview ReQuest procedure Question-Answer Relationship (QAR) 1. K-W-L Chart What do I KNOW, What do I WANT to know, What have I LEARNED Variations: K-W-L plus (Ogle and Carr, 1987) – incorporates the use of mapping K-W-W-L (Bryan, 1988) – includes Where I Can Learn This 2. PreP (PreReading Plan) Technique (Langer, 1981) Gives readers the opportunity to generate what they know about the topic, to extend these ideas and evaluate them. Provides teachers with a procedure for assessing the adequacy of students’ prior knowledge about specific topics. The PreP technique has two facets: engaging students in group discussion and analyzing student responses. A. Engaging Students in Group Discussion Step 1 – Initial associations with the concept (What comes to mind when…?) Step 2 – Reflections on initial associations (What made you think of…?) Step 3 – Reformulation of knowledge (Have you any ideas about…?) B. Analyzing student responses Students with very little knowledge Students with some prior information who could mention examples, attributes or defining characteristics Students with much prior knowledge who could generally offer information that suggests evidence of integration to high-level concepts. Their responses may take the form of analogies, definitions, linkages, and superordinate concepts 3. Anticipation Guides were developed to appraise prior knowledge at the pre-reading stage and evaluate the acquisition of content based on post-reading responses (Reaction Guides) to the guide questions. Since Anticipation Guides encourage a personal, experience-based response, they serve as ideal springboards for large and small group discussions (Head & Readence, 1992). Anticipation Guides consist of the following steps: A. Planning: Select major concepts and supporting details in a text selection, lecture, or other information source. Identify students’ experiences and beliefs that will be challenged and, in some cases, supported by the material. Create statements that reflect students’ pre-reading beliefs and that may challenge and modify those beliefs. Three to five statements are usually adequate. Arrange the statements on paper, transparency, or board. B. Pre-reading: Have students respond to each statement individually. You may ask them to justify their responses for a reference point during a later discussion. Engage the students in a pre-reading discussion asking them to justify their responses to the statements. 4. Text Preview Text Preview (Graves, Cooke, and LaBerge, 1983) is designed to build students’ background knowledge about a topic before reading; to motivate students to read; and provide an organizational framework for comprehending the text. Graves and associates (1985) recommend the following steps for text previewing: a. Tell the students that you are going to introduce a new text. b. Read the interest-building section of the preview to the students. IT is best to read the preview rather than paraphrase it since a casual presentation of it belies the care and time involved in its construction c. Give students a few minutes to relate the information to their prior knowledge and discuss it. d. Read the remainder of the text preview. e. Direct students to read the selection. 3. ReQuest Procedure (Reciprocal Questioning) Encourages students to ask their own questions about the text under study. With self-declared questions, students establish reasonable purposes for reading. ReQuest helps students thing as they read, as well as foster an active search for meaning. Vacca and Vacca (1989) suggest these steps in using ReQuest: a. Both the students and the teacher silently read a common segment of the text selection. b. The teacher closes the book and is questioned about the passage by the students. c. Next, there is an exchange of roles. The teacher now asks the students about the material. d. Upon completion of the student- teacher exchange, the next segment of the text is read. Steps b and c are repeated. e. As a suitable point in the text, when students have processed enough information to make predictions about the remaining sections of the assignment, the exchange of questions stops. The teacher then asks prediction questions: “What do you think the rest of the text is all about?” “Why do you think so?” Speculations are encouraged. f. The students are then asked to read the remaining sections silently. g. The teacher facilitates follow-up discussion of the material. 4. QAR (Question Answer Relationships) Use Question Answer Relationships to identify whether an answer will be found in the text. Have students label questions related to a text as "right there", "think and search", or "on my own". They should write a brief explanation of why each fits the category. 5. SQ3R - The SQ3R strategy (which stands for Survey, Question, Read, Recite, Review) was developed by Robinson (1961) to provide a structured approach for students to use when studying content material. This strategy has proven to be effective and versatile and can easily be integrated into many content areas and across grade levels. Students develop effective study habits by engaging in the pre-reading, during-reading, and post-reading steps of this strategy. The SQ3R literacy strategy helps enhance comprehension and retention of information. It is metacognitive in nature in that it is a self-monitoring process. Five Steps to the SQ3R Literacy Strategy Survey - By surveying the chapter titles, introductory paragraphs, bold face, italicized headings, and summary paragraphs, the reader gets an overview of the material. Surveying also gives enough information to generate individual purposes for reading the text. Question - Purpose questions are often provided at the beginning of the chapter. It not, the reader can turn section headings into questions. The main objective is to have questions for which answers are expected to be found in the passage. Read - The students read to answer the purpose questions formulated in Step 2, Question. Recite - Students try to answer questions without referring to the text or notes. This step helps in transferring information from short-term to long-term memory. Review - Students review the material by rereading parts of the text or notes. Students verify answers given during Step 4, Recite. This helps retain information better and gives immediate feedback. The SQ3R is a very versatile literacy strategy that involves the student in processing information before, during, and after reading: 1. Prior to reading — preview text and establish purpose. 2. While reading — monitor one’s own comprehension. 3. After reading — summarize and review content. Many students don’t know how to study, and this strategy is a perfect way to help them. It works well in many content areas with a variety of types of text. It is recommended that the teacher show the students how to go through the steps. In the fifth grade science lesson found later in this chapter, this strategy provides the framework needed to develop a concept map. Survey Chapter titles, introductory paragraphs, bold face, italicized headings and summary paragraphs Question Turn section headings into questions; have questions for which answers are expected to be found in the passage Read to answer purpose questions Recite try to answer questions without referring to the text or notes Review the material by rereading parts of the text or notes to verify answers
Posted on: Tue, 20 Aug 2013 06:11:22 +0000
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