s. Motivation theories in management Motivation theories in management were first formulated in the works of the classical school of management thought. Thinking of how to best organise work in manufacturing factories, the classicalists (Henri Fayol, Max Weber, Frederick Taylor and Lillian and Frank Gilbreth) envisaged different principles aiming to increase the efficiency of workers, such as the division of labour, close supervision, fair remuneration, equity, etc. While many of the mentioned principles are still in use today, classicalists were criticised for putting too much emphasis on the financial benefits of work and treating people as only one more resource in manufacturing industry. The changing conditions of work and the appearance of trade unions called for other practical and theoretical responses to new developments in the work environment. The Hawthorne studies of work performance as related to working conditions and workers attitudes, and their interpretations by Elton Mayo, represent the beginning of behavioural management and the realisation that beyond merely trying to earn their living, people work to satisfy a number of other needs. In this respect, Maslows hierarchy of needs theory, McGregors Theory X and Theory Y, and Herzbergs motivation-hygiene theory represent the foundation for contemporary motivation theories and are still applied in management to explain employee motivation (Robbins, Coulter, 2001). According to these theories, extrinsic factors such as financial rewards are considered to be nothing more than a hygiene factor (Herzberg), able to satisfy a lower-level need (Maslow), and certainly not the only source of motivation, as employees often need to work to experience achievement and responsibility (McGregor). Workers are no longer seen as tiny cogs in the machine, and managers are encouraged to search for the individual potentials of their staff. Other explanations of employee motivation are embodied in the three-needs theory, goal- setting theory, reinforcement theory, intrinsic/ extrinsic theory, equity theory, and expectancy theory (Bahtijarevic-Siber, 1999). In addition to Atkinsons need for achievement, McClellands three-needs theory introduces two more needs: the need for power and the need for affiliation (social relations), thus deepening the understanding of people�s, particularly managers, motives in work. The goal-setting theory advises managers first to clearly communicate specific and demanding goals to their employees, and then to provide accurate feedback as soon as possible. Based on the assumption that behaviour is externally caused, B.S. Skinners reinforcement theory mentions positive reinforcers (e.g. giving a reward), negative reinforcers (withholding a reward), and punishment. To increase the motivation of their staff, managers are invited to use positive reinforcement only. Believing that a person can be motivated only by influencing extrinsic motivational factors and that no impact can be made on intrinsic factors, Madeline Hunter ( intrinsic/extrinsic theory ) states that managers should concentrate on making their workers accountable, providing timely and accurate feedback, leading workers to success, making jobs more interesting, and establishing unobtrusive communication with workers. Furthermore, managers should offer fair rewards, thus ensuring procedural justice as opposed to distributive justice (grade distribution) in the organisation, which will motivate employees regardless of their personal outcome (Adamss equity theory ). Victor Vrooms expectancy theory , later connected by Porter and Lawler to Adamss equity theory, establishes three linkages relevant to work motivation: effort-performance (Will my effort result in appropriate performance?), performance-reward (Will my performance be rewarded?), and attractiveness of reward (Is the reward attractive to me?). The interrelatedness of the three elements makes managers aware of the importance of peoples individual perceptions and their impact on performance. It should be noted that, similar to trends in research on motivation in education, current studies of employee motivation (Robbins, Coulter, 2001) focus on broader social contexts such as cross-cultural challenges in management and the issue of managing a diverse workforce (men/women, professionals/low-skilled workers, permanent/temporary staff, foreign/ local staff). It is also worth mentioning that particular attention has been paid to creative people, since they require an almost invisible management approach.
Posted on: Sun, 10 Aug 2014 20:48:06 +0000
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