The Quran is the central religious text of Islam and Muslims believe that it represents the words of God revealed to Muhammad through the archangel Gabriel.[25][26][27] Although it mentions Muhammad directly only four times,[28][Quran 3:144][Quran 33:40][Quran 47:2][Quran 48:29] there are verses which can be interpreted as allusions to Muhammads life.[14][n 3] The Quran however provides little assistance for a chronological biography of Muhammad, and many of the utterances recorded in it lack historical context.[29][30] Early biographies Main article: Prophetic biography Next in importance are the historic works by writers of the 2nd and 3rd centuries of the Muslim era (AH – 8th and 9th century CE).[31] These include the traditional Muslim biographies of Muhammad (the sira literature), which provide additional information about Muhammads life.[32] The earliest surviving written sira (biographies of Muhammad and quotes attributed to him) is Ibn Ishaqs Life of Gods Messenger written c. 767 CE (150 AH). Although the work was lost, this sira was used verbatim at great length by Ibn Hisham and Al-Tabari.[33][34] Another early history source is the history of Muhammads campaigns by al-Waqidi (death 207 of Muslim era), and the work of his secretary Ibn Sad al-Baghdadi (death 230 of Muslim era).[31] Many scholars accept the accuracy of the earliest biographies, though their accuracy is unascertainable.[33] Recent studies have led scholars to distinguish between the traditions touching legal matters and the purely historical ones. In the former sphere, traditions could have been subject to invention while in the latter sphere, aside from exceptional cases, the material may have been only subject to tendential shaping.[35] Hadith Main article: Hadith In addition, the hadith collections are accounts of the verbal and physical traditions of Muhammad that date from several generations after his death.[36] Western academics view the hadith collections with caution as accurate historical sources.[36] Scholars such as Madelung do not reject the narrations which have been compiled in later periods, but judge them in the context of history and on the basis of their compatibility with the events and figures.[37] Pre-Islamic Arabia  Main tribes and settlements of Arabia in Muhammads lifetime Main articles: Pre-Islamic Arabia, Jahiliyyah, and Arabian mythology The Arabian Peninsula was largely arid and volcanic, agriculture was difficult except near oases or springs. The landscape was dotted with towns and cities; two of the most prominent being Mecca and Medina. Medina was a large flourishing agricultural settlement, while Mecca was an important financial center for many surrounding tribes.[38] Communal life was essential for survival in the desert conditions, supporting indigenous tribes against the harsh environment and lifestyle. Tribal grouping was encouraged by the need to act as a unit, this unity being based on the bond of kinship by blood.[39] Indigenous Arabs were either nomadic or sedentary, the former constantly travelling from one place to another seeking water and pasture for their flocks, while the latter settled and focused on trade and agriculture. Nomadic survival was also dependent on raiding caravans or oases, the nomads not viewing this as a crime.[40][41] Politically Arabia at the time was divided between two tribal confederations, the Banu Qais, loosely allied with Byzantium and who were originally powerful in Northern and Western Arabia, and the Banu Kalb, who had originally come from Yemen, and were loosely allied with Sassanid Persia. These rivalries were suppressed by Islam but continued to influence events in the Middle East and North Africa in post-Islamic times. In pre-Islamic Arabia, gods or goddesses were viewed as protectors of individual tribes, their spirits being associated with sacred trees, stones, springs and wells. As well as being the site of an annual pilgrimage, the Kaaba shrine in Mecca housed 360 idol statues of tribal patron deities. Three goddesses were associated with Allah as his daughters: Allāt, Manāt and al-‘Uzzá. Monotheistic communities existed in Arabia, including Christians and Jews.[42] Hanifs – native pre-Islamic Arabs who professed a rigid monotheism[43] – are also sometimes listed alongside Jews and Christians in pre-Islamic Arabia, although their historicity is disputed amongst scholars.[44][45] According to Muslim tradition, Muhammad himself was a Hanif and one of the descendants of Ishmael, son of Abraham.[46] Life Life in Mecca Main article: Muhammad in Mecca Timeline of Muhammad in Mecca Important dates and locations in the life of Muhammad c. 569 Death of his father, Abdullah c. 570 Possible date of birth: April 19 570 dC, 12 Rabi al Awal: in Mecca Saudi Arabia 576 Death of his mother, Aminah 578 Death of his grandfather Abdul Muttalib c. 583 Takes trading journeys to Syria c. 595 Meets and marries Khadijah 597 Birth of Zainab, his first daughter, followed by: Ruqayyah, Umm Khultoom, and Fatima Zahra 610 Quranic revelation begins in the Cave of Hira on the Jabaal an Nur the Mountain of Light near Mecca 610 Prophethood begins at 40 years old: Angel Jebreel (Gabriel) appears to him on the mountain and calls him: The Prophet of Allah 610 Begins in secret to gather followers in Mecca c. 613 Begins spreading message of Islam publicly to all Meccans c. 614 Heavy persecution of muslims begins c. 615 emigration of a group of Muslims to Ethiopia 616 Banu Hashim clan boycott begins 619 The year of sorrows: Khadija (his wife) and Abu Talib (his uncle) die 619 Banu Hashim clan boycott ends c. 620 Isra and Miraj (the ascention to heaven to meet God) 622 Emigrates to Medina (called Yathrib): Emigration known as Hijra 624 Battle of Badr 625 Battle of Uhud 627 Battle of the Trench (also known as the siege of Medina) 628 The Meccan tribe of Quraysh and the Muslim community in Medina signed a 10 year truce called the Treaty of Hudaybiyyah 629 Conquest of Mecca 632 Farewell pilgrimage and the death of the Prophet Muhammad (s.a.w.s) (he died in present-day Saudi Arabia) This box:  view talk edit Muhammad was born in Mecca and lived there for roughly the first 52 years of his life (c. 570–622). This period is generally divided into two phases, before and after declaring his prophetic visions. Childhood and early life See also: Mawlid and Family tree of Muhammad Muhammad was born about the year 570[8] and his birthday is believed to be in the month of Rabi al-awwal.[47] He belonged to the Banu Hashim clan, one of Meccas prominent families, although it appears less prosperous during Muhammads early lifetime.[14][48] The Banu Hashim clan was part of the Quraysh tribe. Tradition places the year of Muhammads birth as corresponding with the Year of the Elephant, which is named after the failed destruction of Mecca that year by the Aksumite king Abraha who supplemented his army with elephants. 20th century scholarship has suggested alternative dates for this event, such as 568 or 569.[49]  Miniature from Rashid-al-Din Hamadanis Jami al-Tawarikh, c.1315, illustrating the story of Muhammads role in re-setting the Black Stone in 605. (Ilkhanate period)[50] His father, Abdullah, died almost six months before Muhammad was born.[51] According to Islamic tradition, soon after Muhammads birth he was sent to live with a Bedouin family in the desert, as desert life was considered healthier for infants. Muhammad stayed with his foster-mother, Halimah bint Abi Dhuayb, and her husband until he was two years old.[10] Some western scholars of Islam have rejected the historicity of this tradition.[52] At the age of six, Muhammad lost his biological mother Amina to illness and he became orphaned.[10][53] For the next two years, he was under the guardianship of his paternal grandfather Abd al-Muttalib, of the Banu Hashim clan, but when Muhammad was eight, his grandfather also died. He then came under the care of his uncle Abu Talib, the new leader of Banu Hashim.[10][49] According to Islamic historian William Montgomery Watt there was a general disregard by guardians in taking care of weaker members of the tribes in Mecca during the 6th century, Muhammads guardians saw that he did not starve to death, but it was hard for them to do more for him, especially as the fortunes of the clan of Hashim seem to have been declining at that time.[54] While still in his teens, Muhammad accompanied his uncle on trading journeys to Syria gaining experience in commercial trade, the only career open to Muhammad as an orphan.[10][54] Islamic tradition states that when Muhammad was either nine or twelve while accompanying the Meccans caravan to Syria, he met a Christian monk or hermit named Bahira who is said to have foreseen Muhammeds career as a prophet of God.[55] Little is known of Muhammad during his later youth, and from the fragmentary information that is available, it is difficult to separate history from legend.[10][54] It is known that he became a merchant and was involved in trade between the Indian ocean and the Mediterranean Sea.[56] Due to his upright character he acquired the nickname al-Amin (Arabic: الامين), meaning faithful, trustworthy and al-Sadiq meaning truthful[57] and was sought out as an impartial arbitrator.[9][14][58] His reputation attracted a proposal in 595 from Khadijah, a 40-year-old widow. Muhammad consented to the marriage, which by all accounts was a happy one.[10][56] Several years later, according to a narration collected by historian Ibn Ishaq, Muhammad was involved with a well-known story about setting the Black Stone in place in the wall of the Kaaba in 605 CE. The Black Stone, a sacred object, had been removed to facilitate renovations to the Kaaba. The leaders of Mecca could not agree on which clan should have the honour of setting the Black Stone back in its place. They agreed to wait for the next man to come through the gate and ask him to choose. That man was the 35-year-old Muhammad, five years before his first revelation. He asked for a cloth and put the Black Stone in its centre. The clan leaders held the corners of the cloth and together carried the Black Stone to the right spot, then Muhammad set the stone in place, satisfying the honour of all
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